MM 312

Solid Mechanics 2
Chapter 1 (Part 1)
Presented by:
Dr. Farid Mahboubi Nasrekani
Outline:
• Introduction

• Stress and Strain

Introduction
• Up to the present we have restricted our attention to considerations of simple direct and
shearing stresses, while, in most practical problems, we must deal with combinations of
these stresses.

• The strengths and elastic properties of materials are obtained usually by employing
simple tensile and compressive tests. How is it possible to use the results of such tests
when we know that stresses in practical problems are compounded from tensile stress in
one direction, compressive stress in some other directions, and shearing stress in a third
direction?

• We cannot make tests of material under all possible combinations of stresses to

determine its strength. It is essential, to investigate stresses and strains in more general
terms. The presented analysis in this chapter should be considered as having a direct and
important bearing on practical strength problems and is not merely a display of
mathematical equations.
Stress and Strain
• Normal and Shear Stress:
As we know, force is a vector that has both magnitude and direction. But in the stress
definition, we only consider the magnitude of the force so far. Obviously, this may easily
confuse us. Let’s still take patch DA as an example. As we can see, force DF is not
perpendicular to the sectioned infinitesimal area DA. If we only take the magnitude of the force
into account, apparently, the stress may not reflect the real mechanical status at this point. In
other words, we need to consider both the magnitude and direction of the force.
Now let’s resolve the force DF in normal (DFn) and tangential (DFt) directions of the acting
area as shown. The intensity of the force or force per unit area acting normally to section DA is
called Normal Stress, snn, and it is expressed as:
DFn
s nn = lim DA→0
DA
If this stress “pulls” on the area, it is referred to as Tensile Stress and defined as Positive. If it
“pushes” on the area it is called Compressive Stress and defined as Negative.
The intensity or force per unit area acting tangentially to DA is called Shear Stress, tnt, and it is
expressed as:
DFt
t nt = lim DA→0
DA
Unit of stress: N/m2 or Pa (Pascal).
Stress and Strain
• Stress Sign Conversion:

Obviously, the elementary notation described above is not sufficiently flexible and
convenient for use in general, because (1) the direction of surface DA can change, and (2)
there are infinite tangential directions on a specific surface. i.e., the normal stress snn can
vary with the direction change of n, and shear stress tnt can be in any tangential direction
of the surface.

However, we can recall that we often solve the engineering problems under a reference
coordinate system, for instance, a Cartesian coordinate system xyz. Clearly, it will be
convenient to discuss stress at a point of interest P on an infinitesimal plane through P
with its external normal n in one of the directions along a reference coordinate. For
example, we can consider an infinitesimal sectional plane through P in coordinate z,
where n is coincident with z. Then the traction can be resolved along these three axes as
On a z-sectional plane:

(
s = s zx i + s zy j + s zz k = s x i + s y j + s z k ) z
The first suffix of a stress component indicates the direction of the sectional plane
and the second denotes the direction of the stress component along the coordinate.
Stress and Strain
• Positive/negative planes:

If normal is the same as coordinate direction, this plane is positive. Otherwise, negative
Similarly, we can have other infinitesimal planes through P in the direction of other
coordinates. Positive/negative z; Positive/negative y; Positive/negative x; totally six
planes.
Stress and Strain
• Shearing stresses in a tensile test specimen:

Consider a long uniform bar with a rectangular cross-section of area A subjected to

uniform stress σx in the x-direction:

Consider the stresses acting on an inclined cross-section of the bar; an inclined plane is
taken at an angle θ to the yz-plane. The resultant force at the end cross-section of the bar is
acting parallel to Ox. P = A.s
x
Stress and Strain
For equilibrium, the resultant force parallel to Ox on an inclined cross-section is also
P=Aσx. At the inclined cross-section, resolve the force Aσx into two components, one
perpendicular, and the other tangential, to the inclined cross-section, the latter component
acting parallel to the xz-plane.
These two components have values, respectively, of Aσx cos θ and Aσx sin θ and the area of
the inclined cross-section is A sec θ.
so that the normal and tangential stresses acting on the inclined cross-section are as the
following:

As x cos  As x sin  1
s= = s x cos 2  ; t= = s x cos  sin  = s x sin 2
A sec  A sec  2
where σ is the direct stress and τ is the shearing stress on the inclined plane.
Thus, on any inclined cross-section of a tensile test piece, shearing stresses are always
present and the shearing stresses are greatest on planes at 45 degrees to the longitudinal
axis of the bar.
Stress and Strain
Example: A bar of cross-section 2.25 cm by 2.25 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20
kN. Calculate the normal stress and shearing stress on a plane the normal to which makes
an angle of 60 degrees with the axis of the bar, the plane being perpendicular to one face
of the bar.

θ=60, P=20 kN, and A=0.0225*0.0225=5.06 E-4 m2

20 103
sx = = 39.5 MPa (MN/m 2
)
5.06 10−4

The normal stress:

s = s x cos 2 60 = 39.5  (0.5) 2 = 9.87 MPa

The shearing stress:

1
t = 39.5  sin120 = 17.1 MPa
2
Stress and Strain
• Representation of infinitesimal cube:

For the sake of convenient presentation, we often use an infinitesimal cube formed by the
six infinitesimal planes mentioned above as shown. We have one normal stress component
and two shear stress components on each plane.

We can arrange the stress component in a form of a matrix (or tensor):

Stress and Strain
Thus, from above, we know that the stress state at Point P should be expressed by nine
stress components. In engineering, we denote them as “stress matrix” or “stress tensor”:
Stress and Strain
• Example: Draw the stress states at two different points in a machine component
measured as:

To reflect the stress matrix to an infinitesimal cube, you can first determine the
corresponding notation.
Stress and Strain
• Positive direction of normal stress:

Consider normal stress snn on an infinitesimal plane DAn, whose external normal is n, We
define that snn is positive if its direction is in the normal direction of section, as in Figure
(left), Otherwise, negative (right).
Stress and Strain
• Positive direction of shear
stress:

For a shear stress σnt in the

infinitesimal plane ΔAn where t is a
tangential direction of ΔAn. In the
positive plane (where the external
normal n of ΔAn has the same
direction as a coordinate axis n), the
positive σnt should have the same
direction as coordinate axis t (i.e., y in
Figure shown a). In the negative
plane, the positive σnt should have the
opposite direction to coordinate axis t
(i.e., y in Figure shown d).
Stress and Strain
• Symmetry of the stress matrix:
Let’s check the infinitesimal element shown before. If we cut the infinitesimal
element in the middle, i.e., a z-section as shown in the dashed line. We can have
the sectional model on the right-hand side, a 2D version of the infinitesimal
element.

By writing the moment equation it is concluded that: τxy= τyx. Similarly, by checking
equilibrium conditions in the yz- and xz- planes, we can conclude that: τxz= τzx and τzy= τyz.
Thus, we have shown that the stress matrix or stress tensor is symmetrical and
only SIX independent stress components are needed to describe the stress
state at a point.
Stress and Strain
• Example: Write the stress tensor from the stressed infinitesimal cube (note
the signs of the shear stress are not given in the figure and you need to
decide them):

Look at the planes in the infinitesimal cube. Obviously, the front y-section is a
negative plane (its normal direction is opposite to y-positive). The other two
faces shown are positive planes. x-plane (positive):
Stress and Strain
• Plane stress (2D):

The stresses are only present in the x

and y direction here, σz=τzx= τzy= 0 and
from symmetry conditions of the stress
matrix, we have τxz= τyz= 0. Therefore,
only σxx, σyy, τxy, and τyx are present as
shown in the figure.

State of plane stress also occurs on the

free surface of a structural element or
machine component, i.e., at any point of
the surface not subjected to an external
force.
Stress and Strain
• Stress Transformation (2D):

Cut a triangular section, leaving the left and bottom sides and a third side
inclined at an angle θ from the vertical. Two of its surfaces have the normal in
the x and y directions; the third has a normal at an angle θ from the x-axis, as
shown in the figure.
Stress and Strain
It is now necessary to apply the equilibrium equations about the Normal n
and Tangent t axes.
Stress and Strain
And in a similar way, by applying equilibrium in tangential (t) axis and
using the trigonometric functions we can get:

Based on these above two equations, we can determine the stress in any
plane.
Stress and Strain
Let’s consider 2D stress state undergoing coordinate rotation, from xoy to x'oy'
as shown in the figure. σx'x' can be determined from the previous section where
the coordinate x' coincides with normal n. Thus, the stress in an inclined plane
of θ can be calculated by

σy'y' can be determined by viewing the inclined plane with the angle of (θ+90°)
Stress and Strain
• Example: Rotate the
following stress tensors
about the z-axis for θ=90o
(units MPa).

Since the rotation is about

the z-axis, we do not need to
change the z-directional
stress
Stress and Strain
• Example: At a point on a structural member subjected to plane stress,
normal and shear stresses (50 MPa) exist on horizontal and vertical planes
through the point as shown. Use the stress transformation equations to
determine the normal and shear stress on the indicated plane surface.
Stress and Strain
• Example (solution):
Stress and Strain
• Example: The grain of a wooden member forms an angle of 15 degrees with
the vertical. For the state of stress shown, determine (a) the in-plane
shearing stress parallel to the grain, (b) the normal stress perpendicular to
the grain.
Stress and Strain
• Example (solution):
Stress and Strain
• Principal stresses and maximum shear stress

The stress transformation equations give the normal stress σnn and the shear
stress τnt acting on any plane through a point on a stressed body. For design
purposes, the critical stresses are important that is, the maximum and
minimum normal stress and the maximum shear stress. Previous equations
can be modified to obtain the results. The derivations are not important here,
however, the following single equations give the two in-plane principal
stresses σp1 and σp2:

And the value of θ for which the normal stress is maximum or minimum can
be determined by the equation:
Stress and Strain
• There will be only two planes where either a maximum or minimum normal
stress occurs;

• That there two planes will be 90o apart (i.e., orthogonal to each other)

• If σxx-σyy is +ve, θp indicates the orientation of σp1

• If σxx-σyy is -ve, θp indicates the orientation of σp2

• The maximum in-plane shear stress is given by

• And the value of θ for which the shear stress is maximum or minimum can
be determined by the equation:

• This means that θp and θs are 45o apart. The plane on which the maximum
in-plane shear stresses occur is rotated 45o from the principal planes.
Stress and Strain
• Example: Consider a point in a structural member that is subjected to
plane stress. Normal and shear stresses acting on horizontal and vertical
planes at the point are shown.

• Determine the principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stress
acting at a point

• Show these stresses in an appropriate sketch

Stress and Strain
• Example (Solution):
Stress and Strain
• Example (Solution):
Stress and Strain
• Strain at a Point:

There are two types of deformations.

(1): Normal strain Changes the relative distance of two ends of a segment. If
the distance increases (tensile) strain is positive, and if the distance reduces
(compressive) strain is negative.

(2): Shear strain Change the included angle of two segments. If shear causes
the angle reduction – the shear strain is positive and If shear causes the
angle increase – the shear strain is negative.

The complete state of strain at a point in a body under load can be determined
by considering the deformation associated with a small volume of material
surrounding the point. For this case deformations are assumed to be small, i.e,
a) Planes initial parallel to each other will remain parallel after deformation
b) Straight lines before deformation will remain straight after deformation.
Stress and Strain
In Cartesian components, the strain at a point can be expressed as:

In a similar manner, the normal strain and shear strain component in the n-t
component system can be expressed as:
Stress and Strain
• Plain Strain (2D):

The condition of plane strain is that εz=γxz= γyz=0

Stress and Strain
• Strain Transformation (General Equations):

In a similar way to stress, strain can be transformed to determine the

maximum direct and shear strains experienced by the structure. What you
find when you do the strain transformation analysis is that the equations for
strain transformation are very similar to the equations for stress
transformation. Taking 2D as an example as in figure:
Stress and Strain
• Principal strains and maximum shear strain:
 Stress and Strain
• Example: At point p of the bearing’s housing is subjected to a state of plane
stress, and the strain components εx= −0.0024, εy=0.0044, and γxy = −0.0030.
If θ = 20◦, what are the strains εx’, εy’ and γxy’ at p?

x +y x −y  xy −0.0024 + 0.0044 −0.0024 − 0.0044 0.0030

 x = + cos 2 + sin 2 = + cos 40 − sin 40 = −0.00257
2 2 2 2 2 2
x +y x −y  xy −0.0024 + 0.0044 −0.0024 − 0.0044 0.0030
 y = − cos 2 − sin 2 = − cos 40 + sin 40 = 0.00457
2 2 2 2 2 2

x −y  xy −0.0024 − 0.0044 0.0030

 xy = − sin 2 + cos 2 = − sin 40 − cos 40 = 0.00207
2 2 2 2
Stress and Strain
• Example: At a point of a material the two-dimensional stress system is
defined by:

σx = 60.0 MPa, tensile

σy = 45.0 MPa, compressive

τxy = 37.5 MPa, shearing

Evaluate the values and directions of the principal stresses. What is the
greatest shearing stress?
Stress and Strain
• Example (Solution):
Stress and Strain
• Example: At a point of a material the stresses forming a two-dimensional
system are shown in Figure. Determine the magnitudes and directions of the
principal stresses. Determine also the value of the maximum shearing
stress.
Stress and Strain
• Example (Solution):
sx +s y  s −s y 
2
50 + 30  50 − 30 
2

s 1,2 =   x  + t 2
xy =    + (20) 2
= 40  22.36
2  2  2  2 
s = 62.36 MPa
 1
s 2 = 17.63 MPa
 2t xy   2(20) 
2 = tan 
−1
 = tan −1   = 63.4 →  = 31.7
 s −s   50 − 30 
 x y 

 s x −s y 
2
s1 − s 2 62.36 − 17.63
t max =    + t xy = 
2
= = 22.36 MPa
 2  2 2