Deformation:

STRESS & STRAIN

Deformation

Dilation: a change in volume

Distortion: a change in form
Translation: a change in place
Rotation: a change in orientation
 Term for Stress & Strain

*) Important distinction between two quantities

Scalars vs. Vectors

force and stress

(on a surface)
temperature
temperature
volume gradient acceleration

SCALARS Earth’s VECTORS

gravity Earth’s
field Mantle
speed convection magnetic
time flow field

velocity ocean
length currents
VECTOR & COORDINATE SYSTEM
 BASIC CONCEPTS
FORCES & VECTORS
• Force is any action which alters, or tends to alter
• Newton II law of motion : F=Ma
• Unit force : kgm/s2 = newton (N) or dyne = gram cm/s2; N = 105 dynes

(a). Force: vector quantity with magnitude and direction

(b). Resolving by the parallelogram of forces

Two Types of Force

• Body Forces (i.e. gravitational force)
• Contact Forces (i.e. loading)

Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)

GEOLOGY CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
 STRESS
Stress defined as force per unit area:

σ = F/A
A = area, Stress units = Psi, Newton (N),
Pascal (Pa) or bar (105 Pa)

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)
 STRESS

n)
(
ss
• Stress at a point in 2D

t re
al S

Stress ()
• Types of stress

rm
No
Normal stress (N)
Sh
ear
Str
ess
(
s )

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (S)

(+) (-)
STRESS ON A PLANE AND AT A POINT

Stress Tensor Notation

11 12 13

 = 21 22 23
31 32 33
 FUNDAMENTAL STRESS EQUATIONS

Principal Stress:
1 
• All stress axes are mutually
perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the
direction of principal stress

Stress Tensor Notation

11 12 13

 = 21 22 23
31 32 33

12 = 21, 13 = 31, 23 = 32

Stress Ellipsoid
Stress Ellipsoid
a) Triaxial stress
b) Principal planes of
the ellipsoid

(Modified from Means, 1976)

ELIPSOID TEGASAN σ1 σ1

σ1 > σ2 = σ3 σ3 σ3
σ2 σ2

σ3
σ1 = σ2 > σ3 σ1 σ1
σ2 σ2

σ1 σ1

σ1 > σ2 > σ3 σ3 σ3
σ2 σ2
 The State of
3-Dimensional
Stress at Point A. Stress elipsoid

x3
z
x1

Principal Stress:

Principal
coordinate planes

1 
z



y
x2
y
x
B. Principal stress components x
z
Arbitrary
coordinate planes
zz z

zx
zy
yx
y
xy yy
xz yz
xx

y
x
x
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
C. General stress components
 Mohr Diagram 2-D
Planes of maximum shear stress

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

s
x x
 = +45º Planes of maximum s max
' = +45º
+
shear stress Counter clockwise
n n
-

 

s  x  x  º  n
s
' º

Counterclockwise Clockwise s max

shear stress shear stress Clockwise

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

Compressive Fractures

The Coulomb Law of Failure

c = o + tan  (n)

c = critical shear stress

o = cohesive strength
tan  = coefficient
of internal friction
n = normal stress

(Modified from Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

 STRESS
• Body force works from distance and depends on the amount of materials
affected (i.e. gravitational force).
• Surface force are classes as compressive or tensile according to the
distortion they produce.
• Stress is defined as force per unit area.
• Stress at the point can be divided as normal and shear component
depending they direction relative to the plane.
• Structural geology assumed that force at point are isotropic and
homogenous
• Stress vector around a point in 3-D as stress ellipsoid which have three
orthogonal principal directions of stress and three principal planes.
• Principal stress 1>2>3
• The inequant shape of the ellipsoid has to do with forces in rock and has
nothing directly to do with distortions.
• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress of rock
 STRAIN

UNDEFORMED DEFORMED

Strain is defined as the change (in size and shape) of a body

resulting from the action of an applied stress field
 TYPES OF STRAIN

H H

A. Homogeneous strain

B. Inhomogeneous strain
 Fundamental Strain Equations
Undeformed State Deformed State
R = en

l o = 5 cm Strain r = Sn
R=1
L
 
L' = 3 cm

l f = 8 cm

L
L' = 4.8 cm A. Extension and stretch

Undeformed State Deformed State


T
Extension (e) = (lf – lo)/lo R
t es tan

Strain r
 
Lengthening e>0 and shortening e<0

Stretch (S) = lf/lo = 1 + e

B. Shear strain


 = tan 

Shear Strain ()

SHEAR STRAIN
 Strain Ellipsoid

S1
S1 = Maximum Finite Stretch
S3 = Minimum Finite Stretch

S2
S3
S3

S1
S3

S2

S1
(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)
ELIPSOID TERAKAN τ1 τ1

τ1 > τ2 = τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2

τ1 τ1
τ1 = τ2 > τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2

τ1 τ1

τ1 > τ2 > τ3 τ3 τ3
τ2 τ2
 Progressive Deformation

A B
SimpleShear PureShear
(Noncoaxial Strain) (Coaxial Strain)
L M O
N

25%Flattering
+22º S3 M S1 S3
S1

30%Flattering
+31º S3 S1 S3
S1

40%Flattering
S3 S1 S3
+45º
S1

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

Strain Measurement

• Geological Map
• Geologic Cross-section
• Seismic Section
• Outcrop
• Thin Section

Knowing the initial objects

• Shape
• Size
• Orientation
Strain Measurement from Outcrop
 

 = gap
STRESS vs. STRAIN
Relationship Between Stress and Strain
• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock
Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility
 Deformation and Material

A. Elastic strain
B. Viscous strain
C. Viscoelastic strain
D. Elastoviscous
E. Plastic strain

Hooke’s Law: e = /E, E = Modulus Young or elasticity (Modified from Park, 1989)
Newtonian :  = viscosity,  = strain-rate
Stress Ellipsoid
Strain Ellipsoid
Relationship Between Stress and Strain
• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock
Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility
STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONS
 Yield Strength Stress – Strain Diagram
400 After Strain
Hardening Ultimate
D Strength
C B E
300 A
Yield
Differential Stress (in MPa)

Strength A. Onset plastic deformation

Rep ture
B. Removal axial load
Strength
C. Permanently strained
D. Plastic deformation
200 E. Rupture

100

1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain (in %)
BRITTLE & DUCTILE DEFORMATIONS
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS
THANK YOU