Rock Mecahnics Introduction

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND
DEFORMABILITY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Rock Mechanics:
Rock mechanics is a theoretical and
applied science of the mechanical

behavior of rock (intact rock material )
and rock masses; compared to geology, it
is that branch of mechanics concerned
with the response of rock and rock
masses to the force fields of their
physical environment.
1

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Applications of Rock Mechanics:

Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of
the principles of engineering mechanics to the design

of structures built in or of rock.
The structure could include-but not limited to- a drill
hole, a mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a

repository component, or a building.
Rock mechanics is used in many engineering
disciplines, primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical,

Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering.

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Text Books of Rock Mechanics
Bray, B.H.G., and E.T.

Brown, Rock mechanics for
underground mining, 3rd
ed, Chapman and Hall,
London, 2004.

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Text Books of Rock Mechanics

Goodman, R.E.
Introduction to rock mechanics,
2nd ed, John Wiley and Sons,1989.

DEFORMABILITY
4.1
MostINTRODUCTION
Important International Journals on Rock
Mechanics

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Societies on Rock Mechanics

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Most Important International Conferences on Rock

Mechanics
ISRM Congress
-every four years
US Rock Mechanics
/Geomechanics
Symposium annual

DEFORMABILITY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Intact Rock Materials:
Unfractured rock which occur
between discontinuities in a typical
rock mass.
Discontinuities:
A plane or surface that marks a

change in physical or chemical
characteristics in a rock mass.
A discontinuity can be, for example, a
bedding, schistosity, foliation, joint,
cleavage, fracture, fissure, crack, or fault
plane.

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Rock Masses: A large and indistinct body of
solid earth materials, containing discontinuities

(features on the scale of jointing, folding,
schistosity etc).

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In some problems, it may be the behavior of the
intact rock material that is of concern.
Excavation of rock by drilling and blasting
Stability of excavations in good quality, brittle
rock which is subject to rockburst conditions.
10

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of single discontinuities, or of a
small number of discontinuities, will be of
paramount importance.
Equilibrium of blocks of rock formed by the
intersections of three or more discontinuities

The roof or wall of an excavation, and cases in
which slip on a major through going fault must

be analysed.
11

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A different class of problem is that in which the
rock mass must be considered as an assembly of
discrete blocks.
12

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It is sometimes necessary to consider the global
response of a jointed rock mass in which the
discontinuity spacing is small on the scale of the
problem domain.
13

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In which the rock surrounding the excavations is
always subject to high compressive stresses, it
may be reasonable to treat a jointed rock mass
as an equivalent elastic continuum.
Rock material and discontinuity properties may
be combined to obtain the elastic properties of
the equivalent continuum.
14

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The transition from intact rock to a heavily
jointed rock mass with increasing sample size.
15

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Idealized behaviors
Linear
Time-independent
Homogenous
Isotropic
16

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Characteristics of Rock Materials/Rock
masses
Linear vs. Nonlinear
Time-independent vs. Time-dependent
Homogenous vs. Heterogenous
Isotropic vs. Anisotropic
17

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Linear vs. Nonlinear
18

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Time-independent vs. Time-dependent
19

DEFORMABILITY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Homogenous
vs. Heterogeneous
Ahomogeneousmaterialorsystemhasthesame
propertiesateverypoint;itisuniformwithout
irregularities.
[A homogeneous mixture is one where
all the components are uniformly

distributed .
Heterogeneous can be used to describe
the diversity of nearly anything.

A heterogeneous mixture is one where
the components have localized regions

with different properties
20

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Isotropic: Properties of a material are
identical in all directions. Isotropy is
directionally uniform, such that the
physical properties of the material do
not vary in different directions.
Anisotropic: Properties of a material
depend on the direction. In rocks,

changes in physical properties in
different directions, such as the
alignment of mineral grains or the
seismic velocity measured parallel
or perpendicular to bedding
surfaces, are forms of anisotropy.
21

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Anisotropy. Anisotropy and isotropy can

depend on scale. While a single crystal
can be anisotropic, many crystals
together can form an isotropic or
homogeneous layer within an otherwise
anisotropic rock
22
beapparentatanother.Forexample,whenviewedcloseup,asamplemayappearhomogeneousandisotropic(lower left),yetfromafaritmaybeheterogeneousandisotropic(low

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Four possible conditions for
isotropy/anisotropy and
homogeneity/heterogeneity.
Note that what is apparent at
one scale may not be apparent
at another. For example, when
viewed close up, a sample may
appear homogeneous and
isotropic (lower left), yet from
afar it may be heterogeneous
and isotropic (lower right).
Here, heterogeneity is expresse
23

DEFORMABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Isotropic: Properties of
a material are identical

in all directions
Anisotropic: Properties
of a material depend
on the direction.
24

DEFORMABILITY
4.2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Yield occurs when there is a departure from
elastic behaviour, i.e. when some of the

deformation becomes irrecoverable as at A .
The yield stress is the stress at which
permanent deformation first appears.
25

DEFORMABILITY
Strength, or peak strength, is the maximum
stress, usually averaged over a plane, that the
rock can sustain under a given set of conditions,
it corresponds to point B .
26

DEFORMABILITY
Residual Strength: After its peak strength has
been exceeded, the specimen may still have
some load-carrying capacity or strength. The
minimum or residual strength is reached
generally only after considerable post-peak
deformation (point C ).
27

DEFORMABILITY
Fracture( ) is the formation of planes of
separation in the rock material. It involves the
breaking of bonds to form new surfaces.
The onset of fracture is not necessarily
synonymous with failure or with the attainment
of peak strength.
28

DEFORMABILITY
Brittle fracture : The process by which sudden
loss of strength occurs across a plane following
little or no permanent (plastic) deformation.
(Figure 4.2a).
Ductile deformation: Material can sustain
further permanent deformation without losing
load-carrying capacity (Figure 4.2b).
29

DEFORMABILITY
Failure is often said to occur at the peak strength
or be initiated at the peak strength (Jaeger and
Cook, 1979).
An alternative engineering approach is to say that
the rock has failed when it can no longer
adequately support the forces applied to it or
otherwise fulfil its engineering function.
This may involve considerations of factors other
than peak strength. In some cases, excessive
deformation may be a more appropriate criterion
of failure in this sense.
30

DEFORMABILITY
Terzaghi's formulation of the law of effective
stress, an account of which is given by Skempton
(1960), is probably the single most important
contribution ever made to the development of
geotechnical engineering.
ij ij u ij
ij
(4.1
)
where
are the total stresses,
is the pore
ij
pressure, and
is the Kronecker delta.
31

DEFORMABILITY
Experimental evidence and theoretical argument
suggest that, over a wide range of material
properties and test conditions, the response of
rock depends on
ij ij u ij
(4.2
)
where
,and is a constant for a given case
(Paterson, 1978).
32
4.3 BEHAVIOUR OF ISOTROPIC ROCK

MATERIAL IN UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION
4.3.1 INFLUENCE OF ROCK TYPE AND CONDITION
It is used to determine the uniaxial or unconfined

c , and the elastic
compressive strength,
E modulus, , and Poisson's

constants, Young's
ratio,
, of the rock material.
For similar mineralogy,

will decrease with
increasing porosity, increasing degreeof
c
weathering and increasing degree of
microfissuring.
may also decrease with
increasing water content.
33

The uniaxial compressive strength of sandstone
will vary with the grain size, the packing

density, the nature and extent of cementing
between the grains, and the levels of pressure
and temperature that the rock has been
subjected to throughout its history. However,
the geological name of the rock type can give
some qualitative indication of its mechanical
behaviour.
34

For example, a slate can be expected to exhibit
cleavage which will produce anisotropic behaviour,

and a quartzite will generally be a strong, brittle
rock.
Despite the fact that such features are typical of
some rock types, it is dangerous to attempt to

assign mechanical properties to rock from a
particular location on the basis of its geological
description alone.
There is no substitute for a well-planned and
executed programme of testing.

35

Suggested techniques for determining the

uniaxial compressive strength and deformability
of rock material are given by the International
Society for Rock Mechanics Commission on
Standardization of Laboratory and Field Tests
(ISRM Commission, 1979).
36

4.3.2 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE AND INTERPRETATION
The essential features of the recommended procedure are:
a. Shape: The test specimens should be right circular
cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.53.0 and a diameter preferably of not less than NX
core size (54mm),. The specimen diameter should be
at least 10 times the size of the largest grain in the
rock.
b. Precision of Geometry: The ends of the specimen
should be flat to within 0.02 mm and should not

depart from perpendicularity to the axis of the
specimen by more than 0.001 rad or 0.05 mm in 50
mm.
37

c. End surface treatments: The use of capping
materials or end surface treatments other

than machining is not permitted.
d. Storage: Specimens should be stored, for no
longer than 30 days, in such a way as to

preserve the natural water content, as far as
possible, and tested in that condition.
38

e. Loading Rate: Load should be applied to the
1
0
.
5
1
.
0
MPa
s
specimen at a constant stress rate of
f.
Measurements: Axial load and axial and radial

(or circumferential )strains or deformations
should be recorded throughout each test.
g. No. of Test: There should be at least five
replications of each test.
39

An example of the results obtained in such a

test.
40

Et
a) Tangent Young's modulus,
, is the slope of
the axial stress-axial strain curve at some
fixed percentage, generally 50%, of the peak
Et
strength. For
= 51.0 GPa.
Eav
b) Average Young's modulus,
, is the average
slope of the more-or-less straight
line portion
Eav
of the axial stress-strain curve.
= 51.0
GPa.
41

Es
c. Secant Young's modulus,
, is the slope of a
straight line joining the origin of the axial
stress-strain curve to a point on the curve at
E
s
some fixed percentage of the peak
strength.
= 32.1 GPa.
42

Poisson's ratio may be calculated as
a
r
(4.3
)
For the data given in Figure 4.3.

Eav the
Et values
Esof
corresponding to the values of
,
,
and
, calculated above are approximately
0.29, 0.31 and 0.40 respectively.
43

Because of the axial symmetry of the specimen,

v
the volumetric strain,
, at any stage of the test
can be calculated as
v a 2 r
a
(4.4
)
For example,
atar stress level of v =80 MPa in
a
Figure 4.3,
=0.220%,
= - 0.055% and
= 0.110%.
44

4.3.3 END EFFECTS AND THE INFLUENCE OF HEIGHT TO
DIAMETER
RATIO
Figure 4.4(a): desired uniform deformation
Figure 4.4(b): complete radial restraint

The result of such restraint is that shear
stresses are set up at the specimen-platen

contact (Figure 4.4c).
This means that the axial stress is not a
principal stress and that the stresses within the

specimen are not always uniaxial.
45

DIAMETER RATIO
As a consequence of these end effects, the

stress distribution varies throughout the
specimen as a function of specimen geometry.
As the height to diameter (H/D) ratio increases, a
greater proportion of the sample volume is
subjected to an approximately uniform state of
uniaxial stress.
46

DIAMETER RATIO
Wombeyan Marble were loaded through steel
platens, the measured uniaxial compressive

strength increased as the H/D ratio was decreased
and the shape of the post-peak stress-strain curve
became flatter.
47

DIAMETER RATIO
Tests were repeated with 'brush' platens (made
from an assembly of 3.2 mm square hightensile steel pins), lateral deformation of the
specimens was not inhibited; similar stressstrain curves were obtained for H/D ratios in the
range 0.5 to 3.0.
However, 'brush' platens were found to be too
difficult to prepare and maintain for their use in

routine testing to be recommended.
48

DIAMETER RATIO
It is tempting to seek to eliminate end effects
by treating the specimen-platen interface with

a lubricant or by inserting a sheet of soft
material between the specimen and the platen.
Experience has shown that this can cause
lateral tensile stresses to be applied to the

specimen by extrusion of the inserts or by fluid.
49

DIAMETER RATIO
For this reason, the ISRM Commission (1979) and

other authorities (e.g. Hawkes and Melior, 1970;
Jaeger and Cook. 1979) recommend that
treatment of the sample ends, other than by
machining, be avoided.
50

4.3.4 INFLUENCE OF THE STANDARD OF END
PREPARATION
In Figures 4.3 and 4.5, the axial stress-axial

strain curves have initial concave upwards
sections before they become sensibly linear. This
initial portion of the curve is generally said to be
associated with 'bedding-down' effects.
51

4.3.4 INFLUENCE OF THE STANDARD OF END
PREPARATION
The extent of this portion of the curve can be

greatly reduced by paying careful attention to
the flatness and parallelism of the ends of the
specimen.
52

4.3.5 INFLUENCE OF SPECIMEN VOLUME
It has often been observed experimentally that,
for similar specimen geometry, the uniaxial
compressive strength of rock material,c

,
varies with specimen volume.
Generally, it is observed that
decreases
with increasing specimen volume, except at
very small specimen sizes where inaccuracy in
specimen preparation and surface flaws or
contamination may dominate behaviour and
cause a strength decrease with decreasing
specimen volume.
53

Specimen diameter should be at least 10 times
the size of the largest grain, provides a reason
for using specimen diameters of approximately
50 mm in laboratory compression tests.
54

Many explanations have been offered for the
existence of size effects, but none has gained

universal acceptance.
A popular approach is to interpret size effects in
terms of the distribution of flaws within the

material.
55

4.3.6 INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE
The ISRM Commission (1979) recommends that
1
0
.
5
1
.
0
MPa
s
a loading rate of
be used in
uniaxial compression tests. This corresponds to
a time to the attainment of peak strength in the
order of 5-10 min.
It is preferable to regard strain or deformation,
rather than axial stress or load, as the

controlling variable in the compression testing
of rock.
56

4.3.6 INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE
The times to peak strength recommended by the ISRM
Commission (1979) correspond to axial strain rates in the
5
4 1
order of 10 10 s .
For very fast and very slow strain rates, differences in the
observed stress-strain behaviour and peak strengths can
become quite marked.
2 1
8 1
10 s
10 s
However, a change in strain rate from

to
may only increase the measured uniaxial compressive
strength by a factor of about two.
Generally, the observed behaviour of rock is not significantly

influenced by varying the strain rate within the range that it
is convenient to use in quasi-static laboratory compression
tests.
57

4.3.7 INFLUENCE OF TESTING MACHINE STIFFNESS
Figure 4.6 illustrates the interaction between a

specimen and a conventional testing machine.
The specimen and machine are regarded as
springs loaded in parallel. The machine is
represented
k m by a linear elastic spring of constant
longitudinal stiffness,
k, sand the specimen by a
non-linear spring of varying stiffness,
.
58

Compressive forces and displacements of the

specimen are taken as positive. Thus as the
specimen is compressed, the machine spring
extends. (This extension is analogous to that
which occurs in the columns of a testing machine
during a compression test.)
59

Figure 4.7 shows what will happen if the machine

is (a) soft, and (b) stiff, with respect to the
specimen.
60

If the machine is stiff with respect to the

specimen in the post-peak region, the post-peak
Wmfollowed.
Ws
curve can be
and energy
in excess of that released by the machine as
stored strain energy must be supplied in order to
deform the specimen along ABC.
61

For some very brittle rocks, generally those that
are fine grained and homogeneous, portions of

the post-peak force-displacement or stressstrain curves can be very steep so that it
becomes impossible to 'control' post-peak
deformation even in the stiffest of testing
machines.
In these cases, the post-peak curves and the
associated mechanisms of fracture may be

studied using a judiciously operated servocontrolled testing machine.
62

Closed-loop servo-control are an experimental

variable (a force, pressure, displacement or
strain component) is programmed to vary in a
predetermined manner,
63

Uniaxial Rock Mechanics Test
Systems
How To Get Power With
Precision Control For Your
Brittle Materials
A Stiff, High Force, MTS load
frame is integrated with a
responsive servo-hydraulic
performance package, on-thespecimen instrumentation, test
fixtures, fully digital controls
and application software.
64

The result is a precision brittle
materials test instrument.
a. Strain-gaged load cells are
available for accurate control

and measurement of force
when testing small or fragile
specimens.
b. Axial extensometers attach
directly to the specimen to

measure and control axial
strain over a specified gage
length, reducing the effect of
unpredictable specimen-end
cap friction.
65

c. Spacer plates permit use of a
short stroke actuator, reducing

hydraulic compliance to further
stiffen the load train and improve
test control.
d. The large diameter actuator
bearing is integrated into the load

frame baseplate for high
resistance to rod bending,
reducing the chance of premature
or non-representative specimen
failure. You can control both
compressive and tensile loads
with the double acting high force
actuator.
66

e. Solid steel columns provide
an exceptionally stiff load

frame that stores a
minimum amount of elastic
energy giving you better
control of brittle specimen
failure.
f.
The low-friction chain kit of

MTS circumferential
extensometers controls and
measures overall lateral
specimen deformation, not
just discrete points.
67

g. Close-coupled, high speed servo-
valves and hydraulic

accumulators give you the crisp
response you need to control
cyclic or post failure tests of
brittle specimens.
h. A differential pressure transducer
provides closed loop control for

high force testing of large
specimens.
i.
Coaxial mounting of the LVDT

displacement transducer
eliminates misalignment to
provide reliable stroke control and
measurement.
68

Modern servo-controlled testing systems are

used to conduct a wide variety of tests in rock
mechanics laboratories. The key to the
successful use of these systems is the choice of
the control variable. The basic choice, is between
a force (or stress) and a displacement (or strain)
component.
69

It is not feasible to obtain the complete uniaxial
force-displacement curve for a strain-softening

specimen by load control .
The test can be successfully controlled by
displacement.
Read Goodman(1989) p.79~80, 3.5 Applications
of the Complete Stress-Strain Curve
70

The post-peak portions of the force-
displacement curves obtained in compression

tests on some rocks may be steeper, or not
smooth.
In these cases, better control can be obtained
by using the circumferential displacement

rather than the axial displacement as the
control variable.
71

a
Figure 4.10 shows the complete axial stress
a strain ( ) and circumferential (or r
(
)-axial
radial) strain (
)-axial strain curves obtained in
such a test on a 50 mm diameter by 100 mm
long specimen of an oolitic limestone (
Portland stone) in which a wrap-around
transducer was used to monitor circumferential
displacement.
72

The complete a
-a
curves obtained by
Wawersik and Fairhurst (1970) in a series of
controlled uniaxial compression tests on a
range of rock types.
73

The post-peak behaviours of the rocks may be

divided into two classes :
Class I behaviour, fracture propagation is stable
in the sense that work must be done on the
specimen for each incremental decrease in loadcarrying ability.
Class II behaviour, the fracture process is
unstable or self-sustaining; to control fracture,
energy must be extracted from the material.
74

The experiments of Wawersik and Fairhurst

indicates that, in uniaxial compression, two
different modes of fracture may occur:
a. Local Tensile Fracture parallel to the applied
stress;( initialed at 50~95% of Peak Strength)

Class I
b. Local and Macroscopic Shear Fracture
(faulting). ;( initialed at Post Peak) Class II
75

In very heterogeneous rocks, sub-axial fracturing

is often the only fracture mechanism associated
a the
a
with the peaks of
curves for both
class I and class II behaviour.
In such rocks, shear fractures develop at the
boundaries and then in the interiors of
specimens, well beyond the peak. This
observation is at variance with the traditional
view that through-going shear fracture occurs at
the peak. Generally, these shear fractures,
observed in 'uncontrolled' tests, are associated
with sudden unloading in a soft testing machine.
76

In homogeneous, fine-grained rocks such as the

Solenhofen Limestone ( Figure 4.11, class II ), the
peak compressive strength may be governed by
Iocalised faulting.
Because of the internal structural and
mechanical homogeneity of these rocks, there is
an absence of the local stress concentrations
that may produce pre-peak cracking throughout
coarser-grained crystalline aggregates.
77

In these homogeneous, fine-grained rocks ( can

be considered as class II ), fracture initiation and
propagation can occur almost simultaneously.
78

79

It is important to recognize that the post-peak

portion of the curve does not reflect a true
material property.
80

4.3.8 INFLUENCE OF LOADING AND UNLOADING
CYCLES
Figure 4.13 shows the axial force-axial

displacement curve obtained by Wawersik and
Fairhurst (1970) for a 51 mm diameter by 102
mm long specimen of Tennessee Marble which
was unloaded and then reloaded from a number
of points in the post-peak range.
81

CYCLES
Several points should be noted about the

behavior observed.
a. On reloading, the curve eventually joins that
for a specimen in which the axial

displacement
increases monotonically with
time.
82

CYCLES
b. As displacement continues in the post-peak
region, the proportion of the total

displacement that is irrecoverable increases.
83

CYCLES
c. The unloading-loading loop shows some
hysteresis .
84

CYCLES
d. The apparent modulus of the rock which can
be calculated from the slope of the reloading

curve, decreases with post-peak deformation
and progressive fragmentation of the
specimen.
85

CYCLES
If rock specimens are subjected to loading and

unloading cycles in the pre-peak range, some
permanent deformation and hysteresis are
generally observed. This is often associated with
'bedding-down' effects, and for this reason, the
ISRM Commission (1979) recommends that it is
sometimes advisable for a few cycles of loading
and unloading to be performed.
86

4.3.9 THE POINT LOAD TEST
87

A point load index (Uncorrected)
Is
P
De2
(4.5
)
De: equivalent diameter =(4A/)0.5

I s (50) I s ( De / 50) 0.45
(4.6
)
The uniaxial compressive strength

c (22 ~ 24) I s (50)
(4.7
)
Is : The uncorrected point load strength
88

Suggested method for determining point load
strength
Int, J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.
Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 51-60,1985
89
DIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

(TENSILE STRENGTH OF ROCK)
The method, in principle, is similar to that
employed in the testing of metals.

There are difficulties in gripping the specimens
and applying a load parallel to the axis of the

specimen. It is important that the specimen is
mounted in tension grips without damaging the
surface of the specimen.
90

If the load cannot be
applied parallel to the axis

of the specimen, there will
be a tendency to cause
bending, producing
abnormal stress
concentrations.
91

92

93
TYPICAL TEST METHODS FOR ROCK
94
INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

(FOUR-POINT BENDING TEST)
For four-point bending of cylindrical rock
specimens, with loads applied at L/3 from each
end and reactions at the ends, the modulus of
rupture (MR) is:
16 Pmax L
TMR
3d 3
Pmax
Where
is the maximum load, L is the length
between load reactions on the lower surface, and
d is the diameter of the core.
95

(FOUR-POINT BENDING TEST)
r 4
I
4
My

I
P/2
PL
r
My
2 PL
TMR
6 4
r
I
3r 3
4
2 PL
16 PL
3d 3
3d 3
L/3
P/2
L/3
L/3
M
V
96
P
-
97
-
(Brazilian test) ,
(ISRM ASTM C496-11)
(t)
2P
Dt
Where , Pfailure load (N)

Ddiameter (mm)
t : thickness (mm)
*Assumption: (1) Homogenous
(2) Isotropic
98

(BRAZILIAN TEST - DIAMETRAL COMPRESSION OF DISCS)
The stresses along YY,

1959)
P

R t
P
r
R t
r
and
(Hondros,
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )

R
1
R
tan
tan
r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )

R
1
R
tan
tan
r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
where stress component normal to the loading diameter

r stress component along the loading diameter
P applied force
r distance from the center of disc
t thickness of the disc
2 angular distance over which P is assumed to be
distributed radially
R radius of the disc
99

r tan 1
P

R t
P
r
R t
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )
R
R tan
tan 1

r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )
R
1
R tan
tan

r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
100

P

R t
P
r
R t
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )

R
1
R
tan
tan
r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
(
)

R
1
R
tan
tan
r 2
r 4
r 2
1 ( )

1 2( ) cos 2 ( )
R
R
R
101

r ( 0
( )
0
If r 0
)
1
r 2
r 2
(
)
sin
2
1 ( )

P
R
1
R

tan
tan
0
0
r
r
r
R t 1 2( ) 2 cos 2 ( ) 4
1 ( )2

R
R
R

P sin 2 2
[
1] 0
Rt
P
2P
0.636 P
Rt
Dt
Dt
102

r 0
r 2 0
r
2
1 ( )
1 ( R ) sin 2
P
1
R tan
r
tan

r 2
R t 1 2( r ) 2 cos 20 ( r ) 40
1 ( )

R
R
R

P sin 2 2
[
1] 0
Rt
3P
2P
3 (
) 3 t
Rt
Dt
c
t 8 50
103

Bazilian test has been found to give tensile
strength higher than that of direct tension test.

Effect of fissures: Short fissures weaken a
direct tension specimen more severely than

they weaken a splitting tension (Brazilian test)
specimen.
The ratio has been found to vary from 1 to more
than ten as length of preexisting fissues grows

larger.
104
Load
(N)
Red line: Tension
crack
Blue line: Shear
Displacement
(m)
105
( 50% )

106
SEISMIC WAVES
P WAVE
P wave are also known as compressional waves
because they travel through rocks as alternate

compressions and expansions of the material.
107
P WAVE
Compressional (P) waves can pass through solids,
liquid, or gases.
The velocity of P wave , is expressed as
P waves move more rapidly than other seismic waves:

6 km/s is typical for the crust.
8 km/s is typical for the uppermost mantle.
Compressional waves are the first waves to be
recorded by a seismometer, so they are called P (for

primary) waves
108
S WAVE
S waves are also known as shear waves because of
particle movement is perpendicular to the direction

of wave movement.
109
S WAVE
Shear (S) waves consist of an alternating series of
side-wise movements.
Shear waves can travel only within solid matter.
The speed of a S wave
is about 1 / 3 times that of a P wave.
A typical speed for a S wave in the crust is 3.5
km/s, 5 km/s in the uppermost mantle.
Shear waves are slower than P waves and reach a
seismometer some time after P waves arrives,
they are called S (for secondary) waves.
110

1. (88 )
( ) (Brazilian test)
( )
2.
(15 )(8 )(85 )
3.
(15 )
111

1. l
razilianTest a b
x y xy
(20 )
112

1. (91 )
(5 )
113

1.
50mm 0.025MN/m3
5KN(Kilo-Newton)
100KN
10KN( )
3500m/sec 2000m/sec
(5 )
(10 )
(5 )
114

1. 5
5 3 =236 kgf
5 10
=1570kgf
5 10
Mohr
(Mohr Coulomb criterion) 70 kgf/cm2
(25 )
115

Read
1. Vutukuri, Lama and Saluja, vol.1, p.15~111
(1974).
2. Jaeger and Cook, Fundamental of Rock
Mechanicsp.169~170 and p.258~260

(1979).
3. Brown, ISRM Suggested Methods,
p.120~121 (1981).
4. ASTM D3967-86 Standard Method for
Splitting Tensile Strength of Intact Rock Core

Specimens.
116

MATERIAL IN MULTIAXIAL COMPRESSION
4.4.1 TYPES OF MULTIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Biaxial compression ( 1 2 , 3 0
2 3
Triaxial compression ( 1
)
)
Conventional Triaxial
1 2 3
Polyaxial compression (
True Triaxial
117

MATERIAL IN MULTIAXIAL
COMPRESSION
1 2 , 3 0
4.4.2 BIAXIAL COMPRESSION (
Biaxial compression tests are carried out by

applying different normal stresses to two pairs of
faces of a cube, plate or rectangular prism of
rock.
118

1 2 , 3 0
The great difficulty with such tests is that the

end effects described in section 4.3.3 exert an
even greater influence on the stress distribution
within the specimen than in the case of uniaxial
compression. For this reason, fluid rather than
solid medium loading is preferred.
119

1 2 , 3 0
Brown (1974) carried out a series of biaxial

compression tests on 76 mm square by 25 mm
thick plates of Wombeyan Marble which were
loaded on their smaller faces through (a) 76 mm
x 25 mm solid steel platens, and (b) brush
platens made from 3.2 mm square steel pins.
120

1 2 , 3 0
Figure 4.15 shows the peak strength envelopes
obtained in tests carried out at constant ratios.

The data are normalised with respect to the
uniaxial compressive strength of the plates= 66

MPa.
c
2 1
121

1 2 , 3 0
When the brush platens were used, the maximum
measured increase in peak strength over

15%.
For
only
was
c
2 1 , no strength increase.
The practical consequence of these results is that, for
this rock type, the 'strengthening' effect of the

intermediate principal stress can be neglected
so that the uniaxial compressive strength,
, should
be used as the rock material strength whenever
= 0.
This slightly conservative conclusion is likely to apply to
a wide range of rock types.

122

4.4.3 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION (
1 2 3
The specimen is placed inside
a pressure vessel and a fluid

pressure, 3 , is applied to its
surface.
A jacket, usually made of a
rubber compound, is used to

isolate the specimen from the
confining fluid which is usually
oil.
The axial stress, 1 , is applied
to the specimen via a ram

passing through a bush in the
top of the cell and hardened
steel end caps.
123

1 2 3
124

1 2 3
Axial deformation of the specimen may be most
conveniently monitored by linear variable

differential transformers (LVDTs) mounted inside
or outside the cell, but preferably inside.
Local axial and circumferential strains may be
measured by electric resistance strain gauges

attached to the surface of the specimen (Figure
4.17).
125

1 2 3
When the specimen is

initially loaded it
compresses, but a point is
soon reached, generally
before the peak of the
axial stress-axial strain
curve, at which the
specimen begins to dilate
(increase in volume) as a
result of internal
fracturing.
126

1 2 3
Shortly after the peak
strength is reached,
the net volumetric
strain of the specimen
becomes dilational.
Dilation continues in
the post-peak range.

The amount of dilation
decreases with
increasing confining
pressure.
127

1 2 3
At very high confining

pressures, often
outside the range of
engineering interest,
dilation may be totally
suppressed with the
volumetric strains
remaining contractile
throughout the test.
128

1 2 3
Most of rocks show that, with

increasing confining pressure,
a. the peak strength increases;
b. there is a transition from
typically brittle to fully

ductile behaviour with the
introduction of plastic
mechanisms of deformation
including cataclastic flow
and grain-sliding effects;
129

1 2 3
c. the region incorporating
( a a
the peak of the
)
curve flattens and widens;
d. the post-peak drop in
stress to the residual

strength reduces
3 and
disappears at high values
of
.
130

1 2 3
The confining pressure at which the post-peak

drop in stress disappears and the behaviour
3
becomes fully
ductile (
= 48.3 MPa in Figure
4.19), is known as the brittle-ductile transition
pressure and varies with rock type.
131

1 2 3
The influence of pore-water pressure
132

1 2 3
Brace and Martin (1968) conducted triaxial
compression tests on a variety of crystalline silicate

rocks of low3porosity
0.03) at axial strain
8
(0.0011
10 10 s
rates of
.
They found that the classical effective stress law held
only when the strain rate was less than some critical
value which depended on the permeability of the
rock, the viscosity of the pore fluid and the specimen
geometry.
At strain rates higher than the critical, static
equilibrium could not be achieved throughout the

specimen.
133

4.4.4 POLYAXIAL COMPRESSION(TRUE TRIAXIAL TEST ) (
1 ) 2 3
True triaxial tests may be carried out on cubes
or rectangular prisms of rock with different

normal stresses being applied to each pair of
opposite faces.
The results of true triaxial compression tests
on prismatic specimens are often conflicting,

but generally indicate some influence
of the
2
intermediate principal stress,
, on stressstrain behaviour.
134

4.4.4 POLYAXIAL COMPRESSION (
1 2 3
Generally, the peak strength increases with
3 , but the effect is

increasing 2 for constant
3
not as great as that caused by increasing
by
a similar amount (Paterson, 1978).
However, doubts must remain about the
uniformity of the applied stresses in these tests

and the results should be interpreted with great
care.
135

4.4.5 INFLUENCE OF STRESS PATH
Stresses change during excavation

Pre-excavation
1
2
3
p
p
0.5p
Postexcavation
2.5p
(1+ )p
0
136

A test of considerable relevance in this regard is
the triaxial extension test which is carried out in a

r
triaxial cell with the confining pressure,
a stress,
,greater than the axial
. The test may
a r
a
be commencedat
with
, being
r 1 2 a 3
progressively reduced so that
.
With modern servocontrolled testing machines,
almost any desired total or effective stress path

can be followed within the limitations imposed by
the axisymmetric configuration of the triaxial cell.
137

Swanson and Brown (1971) investigated
the effect of stress path on the peak

strength of a granite and a quartz
diorite.
They found that, for both rock types,
the peak strengths in all tests fell on the

same envelope (Figure 4.21 for Westerly
Granite) irrespective of stress path.
They also found that the onset of
dilatancy is stress-path independent.

Similarly, Elliott (1982) found the yield
locus of a high-porosity, oolitic

limestone to be stress-path
independent.
138

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CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

applied science of the mechanical

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Applications of Rock Mechanics:

the principles of engineering mechanics to the design

hole, a mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a

disciplines, primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical,

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Text Books of Rock Mechanics

Bray, B.H.G., and E.T.

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Text Books of Rock Mechanics

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Societies on Rock Mechanics

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Most Important International Conferences on Rock

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

A plane or surface that marks a

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

solid earth materials, containing discontinuities

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

rock which is subject to rockburst conditions.

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

intersections of three or more discontinuities

which slip on a major through going fault must

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

all the components are uniformly

the diversity of nearly anything.

the components have localized regions

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

depend on the direction. In rocks,

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

Anisotropy. Anisotropy and isotropy can

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

a material are identical

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

elastic behaviour, i.e. when some of the

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

CH4 ROCK STRENGTH AND

4.3 BEHAVIOUR OF ISOTROPIC ROCK

It is used to determine the uniaxial or unconfined

E modulus, , and Poisson's

For similar mineralogy,

4.3 BEHAVIOUR OF ISOTROPIC ROCK

will vary with the grain size, the packing

4.3 BEHAVIOUR OF ISOTROPIC ROCK

cleavage which will produce anisotropic behaviour,

some rock types, it is dangerous to attempt to

executed programme of testing.