Stress

Reading Material:
Hibbeler – Ch. 1
Beer – Ch. 1, 2
Cook – Ch. 3

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 Harvard Business Review

• Harvard psychologist Ellen Langer on the benefits of mindfulness in

an age of increasing chaos.
(http://hbr.org/2014/03/mindfulness-in-the-age-of-complexity/ar/1)

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 Measurement of stress field

• Stress is a function of location

Measurement of Stresses - Photoelasticity

http://www.experimentalstress.com/topic/photos.html

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 Measurement of stress field (cont.)
• Stress is a function of load

http://www.vishay.com/photo-stress-plus/knowledge-base-list/

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 Average normal stress in an axially loaded bar
Assumptions:
1. the bar remains straight; the cross section remains flat -> P is applied
along the centroidal axis
2. homogeneous material (the same mechanical properties throughout its
volume); isotropic material (the same properties in all directions)

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Average normal stress distribution

P = s ave A = ò dF = ò s dA
A
P
s ave = s = (A: cross-sectional area)
A

tensile stress (+) compressive stress (-)

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Example 1.6

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2-8
 Average shear stress

V
t ave = (Only approximation)
A
tavg = average shear stress at the section, which is assumed to be
the same at each point located on the section
V = internal resultant shear force at the section determined from the
equations of equilibrium
A = area at the section
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Average bearing stress in connections
Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
sb = =
A td

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Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force
member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F = P cosq V = P sinq

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
s= = = cos 2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
t= = = sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
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Maximum Stress
• Normal and shear stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
s= cos 2 q t = sin q cosq
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
sm = t¢ = 0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
tm = sin 45 cos 45 = = s¢
A0 2 A0

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2-14
Allowable stress

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 Safety Factor
Structural members or
machines must be designed
such that the working stresses
are less than the failure stress
of the material.
FS = Factor of safety
s fail failure normal stress
FS = =
s allow allowable normal stress
t fail failure shear stress
FS = =
t allow allowable shear stress
Factor of safety considerations:
• uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
• types of failure
• maintenance requirements and
deterioration effects
• importance of member to
structures integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

ultimate load
FS =
allowable load

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2-17
 Stress

Internal forces at point O

Continuum hypothesis

n: normal vector of a plane through O

Stress describes the intensity of the internal force acting on a

specific plane (area) passing through a point.
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 Stress vector

(n )
DF
T = lim
DA®0 DA

(n ) (n ) (n ) (n )
T = Tx i + Ty j + Tz k

(1) The physical dimensions of stress are force per unit area,
(2) Stress is defined at a point upon an imaginary plane or boundary
dividing the material into two parts,
(3) Stress is a vector equivalent to the action of one part of the material
upon another, and
(4) The direction of the stress vector is not restricted.

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 Normal stress and shear stress

Normal stress (正應力)

DFz
s z = lim
DA®0 DA

Shear stress (剪應力)

DFx DFy
t zx = lim t zy = lim
DA®0 DA DA®0 DA

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 The stress components associated with the x face at point O
DFx æ ( i ) ö The definition of a stress component needs
s x = lim ç= T x ÷
DAx ® 0 DA two directions :
x è ø
DFy æ ( i ) ö • one direction to identify the face, and
t xy = lim ç= T y ÷ • a second direction to specify the force
DAx ® 0 DA
x è ø component
DFz æ ( i ) ö
t xz = lim ç= T z ÷
DAx ® 0 DA
x è ø

Sign convention for stress components:

A stress component is positive

when a positively directed force
component acts on a positive face.

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A face will be defined as positive when its outwardly directed normal vector
points in the direction of the positive coordinate axis, and as negative when its
outward normal vector points in the negative coordinate direction.

y Positive y face

Positive x face

Negative x face o
x

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 General state of stress
The state of stress at the point O is
dependent on the nine stress components:
s x t xy t xz
t yx s y t yz
t zx t zy s z

A knowledge of the nine components is

necessary in order to determine the
components of the stress vector acting on
an arbitrary plane with normal n.
DF1
Indicial form s 11 = lim
DA1 ® 0 DA
1

DF2 DF j
s 12 = lim or s ij = lim
DA1 ® 0 DA
1
DAi ®0 DAi
DF3
s 13 = lim
DA1 ® 0 DA
1
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 Plane stress
The state of stress at a given point will only depend upon
s x t xy
t yx s y
in which the stress components are functions of only x and y.

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 Equations of equilibrium

åF = 0 åM = 0

åM x =0 åM y =0 åM z =0

åM z = 0: (t xy DA)a = (t yz DA)a = 0

t xy = t yz

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