Semester: 04 (Spring-2022)

Class : 19 A & B

Instructor : Prof Dr Iqbal

Rasool Office : 211-Q (Aero
Dept)
Email : irmemon@yahoo.com
iqbal.rasool@ist.edu.pk

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 Learning Outcomes
• Define/Discuss Normal Stress
• Define/Discuss Shear Stress
• Define the state of stress for a point in three
dimensions (3D)
• Define the sign convention for the state of
stress at a point in 3D

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Internal Resultant Loadings

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• Subdivide cross section into
small areas
• Material is continuous
(uniformly distributed matter with
no voids) and is cohesive (all
portions connected together)
• Finite, yet very small force, ΔF,
acting on ΔA
Stress
Normal Stress
The intensity of the force acting normal to ∆A is
defined as the normal stress ,  (sigma). Since
∆Fz is normal to the area then
If the normal force or stress “pulls” on ∆A as shown in
Fig., it is referred to as tensile stress, whereas if it
“pushes” on ∆A it is called compressive stress .
Shear Stress
The intensity of force acting tangent to ∆A is
called the shear stress , τ (tau). Here we
have shear stress components,
Subscript notation z specifies the orientation of the area
, and x and y indicate the axes along which each shear
stress acts.
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 General State of Stress

• Subdivide cross section into

small areas
• Material is continuous
(uniformly distribute matter with
no voids) and is cohesive (all
portions connected together)
• Finite, yet very small force, ΔF,
acting on ΔA
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 General State of Stress

•
• State of stress is characterized by
Further section the body by
planes parallel to x-z and y-z three components acting on each face
planes of the element.
• Cut out a cubic volume element Consider yz-plane, acted upon by σxx,
•
to represent state of stress
around a point τxy and τxz. Subscript identifies stress in
terms of plane and direction.
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 Lecture 4

Normal Stress
Numericals

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 Understanding direction of stress

 xx Direction

Plane

 xx   11 x-plane, x-direction
Also written as x

 xy   xy   12 x-plane, y-direction

Therefore, only six components are required to uniquely define

the stress state of a material at a point; σxx, σyy, σzz, τxy, τyz and τzx.
General State of Stress

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 Units

SI Units:
1 KPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2
Sometimes stress is expressed in N/mm2
Conversion: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa

English Units:
psi = lb/in2 1 Mpa is 145.0377 psi

ksi = 103 psi

Find conversion between MPa and psi/Ksi ???

 Terms and Definitions
• Homogeneous Material
– same properties at every point; it is uniform without irregularities.
• Isotropic Material
– identical values of a property in all directions.
• Prismatic Bar
– type of beam with same cross section through out the length of the
beam.

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 Avg Normal Stress Distribution

= average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area

P = internal resultant normal force , which acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional area. P is
determined using the method of sections and the equations of equilibrium

A = cross-sectional area of the bar where s is determined 13

 Normal Stress Equilibrium

• Only normal stress exists on

any small volume element
• Consider vertical equilibrium • Applicable for both either tension or
compression

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 Max Avg Normal Stress
• With constant internal force P and area A we got
constant normal stress throughout the longitudinal
axis of bar
• If bar is subjected to several external loads or
there is change in X-sect area the normal stress
will be different at different locations.
• It is important to know max avg Normal Stress.
• Determine internal force P at all sections
• Then determine max normal stress corresponding
to max internal force

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 Example-5
The bar in Fig. has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of 10 mm. Determine
the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is subjected to the loading
shown.

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 Example-6
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in Fig. If AB has a
diameter of 10 mm and BC has a dia of 8 mm, determine the average normal stress in
each rod.

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 Lecture 5

Shear Stress
Numericals

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 Average Shear Stress
• Shear stress acts in the plane of the sectioned
area
• Consider force F applied to rigid bar. If F is large
enough, it will cause bar to deform and fail along
the planes AB and CD.
• FBD of the unsupported center segment of the bar
indicates that shear force, V=F/2, must be applied
at each section to hold the segment in equilibrium
• Average shear stress distributed over each
sectioned area that develops this shear force is
defined by
τavg = average shear stress at the section, which is assumed to
be the same at each point located on the section
V = internal resultant shear force on the section determined
from the equations of equilibrium
A = area at the section

This is an example of simple or direct shear, caused by direct action of the

applied load F. It often occurs in various types of simple connections that use
bolts, pins, welding material, etc. However, it is an approximate solution.
 Shear Stress Equilibrium

Similarly, force equilibrium in z-direction yields

Now taking moment about the x-axis

All four shear stresses must have

equal magnitude and be directed
either toward or away from each
other at opposite edges of the element

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 Shear Stress Equilibrium

• All four shear stresses have equal magnitude and directed either
toward or away from each other at opposite edges of the element
• This condition is referred to as the material is subjected to pure shear
• Pure shear means there is no normal stress induced or applied. i.e all
the stresses are zero except shear
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 Centroid ???
• In engineering practice we assume the stress is uniform, if line of
action of the concentrated loads P and P’ passes through the centroid
of the section considered.
• This type of loading is called centric loading and take place in all
straight two-force members found in trusses and pin-connected
structures

• The distribution of the internal stress cannot be uniform

if the load is eccentric.
• If a two-force member is loaded axially, but
eccentrically, then from the conditions of equilibrium,
internal forces in a given section must be equivalent to
a force P applied at centroid of the section and a
couple M of moment M = Pd.
• The distribution of forces and corresponding
distribution of stresses therefore cannot be
uniform
 Bolt under Single Shear
Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to
connect various structural members / machine components

• Consider two plates A and B, which are

connected by a bolt CD, and are subjected
to tension forces of magnitude F.

• FBD of bolt and of the portion located above

the plane EE’ , shear P in the section is equal
to F.

• Stresses will develop in the section of bolt

corresponding to the plane EE’. The
average shearing stress in the section is
Bolt under Double Shear
• If splice plates C and D are used to
connect plates A and B, shear will
take place in bolt HJ in each of the
two planes KK’ and LL’ (and
similarly in bolt EG).

• Bolts are said to be in double

shear. The shear P in each of the
sections is P = F/2, the average
shearing stress is
 Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members they
connect, along the bearing surface, or surface of contact.
• Bolt exerts force P on plate A equal and opposite to the
force F exerted by the plate on the bolt.

Bearing Stress is calculated by dividing load P by the area of the

rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the plate section
 Example 9
Determine the average shear stress in 20mm dia. pin at A
and 30 mm dia. pin at B that support the beam.
Force & Moment Equilibrium
 Example 9
FBD

Pin A is in Double Shear

Pin B is in Single Shear

Avg Shear Stress

 Lecture 6

Allowable Stress
Numericals

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 Learning Outcomes
• Concept of Allowable Stress
• Understand how to solve problems to
determine Avg Normal Stress

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 Allowable Stress
• To properly design a structural member or mechanical element, applied stress
in the material is required to be restricted to a level that is safe for the
intended function during the design life.

• There are many reasons for doing this. Few of these are:
 design load may be different from actual working loads
 errors in fabrication or in the assembly of its component parts
 Unknown/unaccounted vibrations, impact, or accidental loads can occur
 corrosion, decay, or weathering deteriorate material during service
 to account for variability in mechanical properties of materials

• Factor of Safety (F.S.) is used to relate failure and allowed loads for a
member. FS must be > 1 to avoid failure

• In Aerospace structural design, FS is 1.3 to 1.5 for general design and higher
for critical structural parts / members (> 2)

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 Allowable Stress
Allowable Stress
• Working stress σw, also called the allowable stress, is the maximum
safe axial stress used in design.
• In most design, working stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the
elastic range.
• However, it is customary to base the working stress on the yield stress
σy divided by Factor of Safety ‘N’.
 Example 1.12
The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in Fig.
Determine to the nearest 1/4 in. the required diameters of the
steel pins at A and C if the allowable shear stress for the steel is
τallow = 8 ksi.

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Example 1.12

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 Problem 31
The supporting wheel on a scaffold is held in place on the leg using a 4-
mm-diameter pin as shown. If the wheel is subjected to a normal force
of 3 kN, determine the average shear stress developed in the pin.
Neglect friction between the inner scaffold puller leg and the tube used
on the wheel.

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 Problem 39
If the block is subjected to the centrally applied force of 600 kN,
determine the average normal stress in the material. Show the stress
acting on a differential volume element of the material.

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 Problem 33
The bar has a cross-sectional area A and is subjected to the axial load P.
Determine the average normal and average shear stresses acting over the shaded
section, which is oriented at from the horizontal. Plot the variation of these
stresses as a function of (0 ≤ ≤ 90o)

Hints:
• Resolve Area into compts to know the
inclined area

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 Problem 34
The built-up shaft consists of a pipe AB and solid rod BC. The
pipe has an inner dia of 20mm and outer dia of 28mm. The rod has
a dia of 12mm. Determine the average normal stress at points D
and E and represent the stress on volume element located at each of
these points.

Hints:
• Draw FBD
• AB is a pipe

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 Problem 14
The blade of the hacksaw is subjected to a pretension force of
F = 100N. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on
section b–b that passes through point D.

Hint:
- FBD
- Establish axis system at section b-b.
- Use equilibrium eqns to find internal reactions. 38
 Problem 11
The forearm and biceps support the 2-kg load at A. If C can be assumed as a pin
support, determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section of the
bone of the forearm at E. The biceps pulls on the bone along BD.

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 Problem 16
A 150-lb bucket is suspended from a cable on the wooden frame.
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at
E.

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 Home Work

Example 1.13, 1.14

Problem 33, 34, 44, 48

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