Introduction to Energy

Balances
Dr Simon Iveson

Conservation Equations
• There are certain quantities in nature that have been
observed to always be conserved throughout any
process. These are mass, momentum and energy.
• For each of these quantities, we may write
conservation equations of the form:
Accumulation = Input – Output
• In cases where we are measuring the flows of
compounds (as opposed to elements) we also need to
add generation and consumption terms to account for
chemical reactions:
Acc. = Input – Output + Generation – Consumption

1
 Forms of Energy
• The equations for conservation of energy are
essentially no different to those for conservation of
mass, except for the fact that there are many different
forms of energy. These include:
– Kinetic Energy, Ek
– Potential Energy, Ep
– Internal Energy, U
– Heat, Q
– Work, W

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Joule demonstrated that

water can be heated by
doing (mechanical) work,
and showed that for every
4186 J of work done, the
temperature of 1 kg of water
rose by 1 ∆°C.

2
 Open, Non-Steady State System

Output
System mout
Boundary vout
Tout
Pout
Feed
min
msys hsys
vin
Tin vsys Û
Pin
sys hout

hin

Q (+ve) W (+ve)

Datum (href = 0)

Energy Conservation Equation for

Open, Non-Steady State System
Accumulation Energy In

[ ]
∆ msys (Uˆ sys + Eˆ k , sys + Eˆ p , sys ) = Q + W + ∑ min ( Hˆ in + Eˆ k ,in + Eˆ p ,in )
− ∑ mout ( Hˆ out + Eˆ k ,out + Eˆ p ,out )

Energy Out
where Uˆ , Eˆ k , Eˆ p and Hˆ are the specific internal, kinetic
and potential energy and enthalpy of the material (e.g.
J/kg), Q and W are the amounts of heat and work energy
entering the system (e.g. J), m is the mass of material
(kg) and the subscripts “sys”, “in” and “out” refer to the
system, and the streams in and out of the system.

3
 Units of Energy
• SI unit of energy is the Joule (J) or Newton-metre (Nm).
• Historically, heat was measured in terms of the ability to
raise the temperature of water. Thus a calorie is defined
as the amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 ∆°C.
• The kilocalorie (kcal), or food calorie, is the amount of
heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1
kilogram of water by 1 ∆°C.
• In industry, the British thermal unit (Btu) is still used.
This is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water by 1 ∆°F.
• 1 cal = 10-3 kcal = 3.969 x 10-3 Btu = 4.186 J
• A kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy delivered at a
power level of 1 kW during an hour: 1 kWh = 3.6×106 J

Kinetic Energy Ek
• Kinetic energy is the energy a material possesses due
to its velocity v with respect to some frame of
reference. The term Ek is used for what is called the
macroscopic kinetic energy, namely the energy
associated with the motion of a system as a whole
relative to the surroundings, not the kinetic energy of
the individual molecules (see internal energy).
• The specific kinetic energy (energy per unit mass) is
given by:
Eˆ k = 12 αv 2
where α = 1 for solid or plug flow, α = 2 for laminar
flow (parabolic profile) and α ≈ 1 for turbulent flow.

4
 Example: Kinetic Energy
• Determine the kinetic energy of a 1 kg mass
travelling at 2 m/s.

Solution:
1
Eˆ k = αv 2 = 0.5(1)(2 m/s ) = 2 m2 /s 2 = 2 J/kg
2

2
Therefore:

( )
Ek = mEˆ k = (1 kg) 2 m2 /s2 = 2 kg ⋅ m2 /s 2 = 2 J

Potential Energy Ep
• Potential energy is the energy an object has by virtue
of its position in a force field.
• The most common kind is gravitational potential
energy, which per unit mass is given by:

g (h − href ) = gh
h g constant
Eˆ p = ∫ gdh =
href
where g is gravitational acceleration (in reality g
varies with elevation, but this is usually insignificant)
and href is the height of the reference plane (usually
taken as 0).
• There can also be magnetic and electrostatic potential
energies.

5
 Example: Potential Energy
• Calculate the amount of gravitational potential energy
contained by a 10 kg object at an elevation 2 m above
the floor (the datum).

Solution:

( )
Eˆ p = gh = 9.81 m/s 2 (2 m) = 19.62 m2 /s 2
= 19.62 J/kg
Therefore:
E p = mEˆ p = (10 kg)(19.62 J/kg) = 196.2 J

Notes Regarding Potential and

Kinetic Energy
• For most systems of interest to chemical engineers,
the changes in potential and kinetic energy are
usually negligible compared to the flows of heat and
work involved. Therefore these two terms are often
omitted.
• The most frequent situation in which it is important to
include kinetic and potential energy terms is in the
analysis of flow in pipes where there are no chemical
reactions or major flows of heat.

6
 Internal Energy U
• Internal energy U is a macroscopic term that
represents the sum of all various microscopic
energies, such as:
– Rotational and vibrational (thermal) energy.
– Nuclear energy.
• The specific internal energy (internal energy per unit
mass, J/kg) may be calculated by:

CV (T − Tref )
T CV constant
Uˆ = ∫C V dT =
Tref

where CV is the heat capacity (or specific heat) at

constant volume (J/kg·∆K) and Tref is the reference
temperature. This assumes no change in phase.

Heat Capacity at Constant Volume CV

• CV is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of substance by one
degree in a closed system if the process is carried out
at constant volume. It has the SI units of J/kg·∆K.
• Tref is the reference temperature at which all internal
energies at standard state are taken as being zero.
• Hence the change in internal energy when a mass m is
heated from temperature T1 to T2, with CV constant
and no change in phase, is given by:
( T
)
∆U = m Uˆ 2 − Uˆ 1 = m⎛⎜ ∫ CV dT − ∫ CV dT ⎞⎟
T ⎝
T2

ref
T1

ref ⎠
CV constant
mCV (T2 − T1 )
T2
= m ∫ CV dT =
T1

7
 Work W
• The work is the flow of energy across a system
boundary that is associated with a force F acting over
a distance x, given by:
W = ∫ Fdx
• Work is positive when the surroundings perform
work on the system, and negative when the system
performs work on the surroundings.
• When the work involves pushing a piston, then F =
PA where P is the pressure and A is the area. Hence:

W = A∫ Pdx

Heat Energy Q
• Heat is the flow of energy across a system boundary
that is caused by a temperature difference between
the system and the surroundings. The direction of
heat flow is always from a higher temperature to a
lower one. It is taken as positive when transferred to
the system, negative when transferred to the
surroundings.
• A process in which no heat transfer occurs is called
an adiabatic process (Q = 0); that is, the system and
the surroundings are at the same temperature, or the
system is perfectly insulated, or the process takes
place so fast that there is no time for heat to be
transferred.

8
 Heat and Work
• Heat and work are both path functions, not state
functions. This means that the individual amounts of
heat and work generated or consumed in changing
between two different states, depends on the path
taken. However, the combined total amount of heat
and work is independent of the path.
• Both heat and work only exist as flows across the
interface between a system and its surroundings. They
cannot be stored or contained in any way. So when we
heat a system, strictly speaking it is wrong to say that
heat is now stored in the system. The energy is
actually stored as internal energy and may be
recovered in some form other than heat.

Enthalpy H
• Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy plus
the product of pressure times volume:
Hˆ = Uˆ + PVˆ
where Vˆ is the specific volume (e.g. m3/kg).
• Although it is often talked about as if it were a form
of energy in its own right, enthalpy is really just a
measure of the available energy that takes account of
the energy changes due to expansion/contraction.
• However, it is a useful concept because the term U +
PV arises in the energy balance equation for systems
with mass flows crossing the system boundary.

9
Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure CP
• Enthalpy may be calculated by the equation:

C P (T − Tref )
T C P constant
Hˆ = ∫C P dT =
Tref

where CP is the heat capacity (or specific heat) at

constant pressure (J/kg·∆K) and Tref is the reference
temperature. This assumes no change in phase.
• CP is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of substance by one
degree in a closed system if the process is carried out
at constant pressure. It has the SI units of J/kg·∆K.

Enthalpy Change between 2 States

• The change in enthalpy when a fixed mass m changes
from temperature T1 to T2 at constant pressure with
no phase change is given by:
T2 C P constant
∆H = H 2 − H1 = m ∫ C P dT = mC P (T2 − T1 )
T1

10
 Relationship between CV and CP
• For ideal gases it can be shown that: CP = CV + R
where R is the universal gas constant (8.314
J/gmol·K).
NOTE: Need to use consistent units, so convert moles
to mass or vice versa.
• For solids and liquids which are essentially
incompressible: CP = CV

Tabulated Values of CV and CP

• CV and CP are both functions of temperature and are
often tabulated in the form:
−2
C P = a + bT + cT 2 + dT 3 or C P = a + bT + cT
• For small temperature changes, it is often sufficiently
accurate to just use the average value of CP evaluated
at Tav = (T1 + T2)/2. Hence: ∆H = mCP,av(T2 – T1)
• However, for large changes in temperature (and
provided there is no phase change), it is better to
integrate the expression for CP. Hence:
T2
b c d 4
∆H = m ∫ C P dT = a(T2 − T1 ) + (T2 2 − T12 ) + (T2 3 − T13 ) + 4
(T2 − T1 )
T1
2 3 4
T2
b
∆H = m ∫ C P dT = a(T2 − T1 ) + (T2 2 − T12 ) − c(T2 −1 − T1−1 )
T1
2

11
 Example: Calculating ∆H
• Table B.2 in Felder and Rousseau gives the following
correlation for the heat capacity of liquid acetone,
CH3COCH3 (MW = 58 g/mol):
CP = a + bT
where a = 123, b = 0.186, T is in °C and CP has units
J/mol·∆°C. Calculate the amount of heat required to
warm 100 g of liquid acetone from 0 to 50 °C.

Solution:
Method 1: Evaluate CP at Tav = (0 + 50)/2 = 25°C
CP,av = a + bTav = 123 + 0.186(25) = 127.7 J/mol·∆°C
∆H = mCP,av(T2 – T1)
= (100)(127.7)(50 – 0)
= 638500 J WRONG!
∆H = mCP,av(T2 – T1)
= (100 g)(127.7 J/mol·∆°C)(50°C – 0°C)(1 mol/58 g)
= 11009 J (ANSWER)

12
Solution:
Method 2: Integrate the full expression for CP.
T2
b
∆H = m ∫ C P dT = a(T2 − T1 ) + (T2 2 − T12 )
T1
2
⎛ 1 mol ⎞ ⎡
= (100 g)⎜⎜
58 g
⎟⎟ ⎢123(50 − 0) +
2
(
0.186 2 2
50 − 0 )⎤⎥⎛⎜ mol
J ⎞
⎟
⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦⎝ ⎠
= 11004 J

NOTE: Very little difference in the answer. It is usually

only when there are very large temperature changes
that it is worth the effort of integrating the full heat
capacity equation.

Latent Heat
• So far we have been looking at the heat flow involved
when there is no change in phase. These heat flows
are called sensible heat flows, because the effect of
the heat flow can be sensed (i.e. you can feel a rise in
temperature).
• When there is a phase change such as
boiling/condensation, melting/fusion or
sublimation/deposition, heat can flow into or out of a
system without there being any change in
temperature. The amount of heat associated with a
phase change is called latent heat.
• Values of the latent heat of melting and boiling are
tabulated for various materials.

13
 Phases of Matter

Specific Heat Capacities and

Latent Heats of Water

14
 Example: Latent Heat
• Calculate the energy needed to heat 1 kg of ice
initially at 0 °C until it becomes steam at 100°C.
Solution:
There are three stages to the heating process.
First the ice must be melted (latent heat of fusion):
Q1 = m∆Hfus = (1 kg)(334 J/g)(1000 g /kg)
= 334000 J = 334 kJ
Then the liquid water must be heated from 0 to 100°C:
Q2 = mCP,av(T2 – T1)
= (1 kg)(4.18 J/g·∆°C)(100°C – 0°C)(1000 g/kg)
= 418400 J = 418.4 kJ

Lastly there is the heat required to boil the water:

Q3 = m∆Hvap
= (1 kg)(2290 J/g)(1000 g /kg)
= 2290000 J = 2290 kJ
Hence the total amount of heat energy required is:
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= 334 + 418.4 + 2290 kJ
= 3042.4 kJ = 3.04 MJ ANSWER

NOTE: The largest component is the heat required to

vaporise the water.

15
 Open, Non-Steady State System

Output
System mout
Boundary vout
Tout
Pout
Feed
min
msys hsys
vin
Tin vsys Û
Pin
sys hout

hin

Q (+ve) W (+ve)

Datum (href = 0)

Energy Conservation Equation

for an Open, Non-Steady State
System
Accumulation Energy In

[ ]
∆ msys (Uˆ sys + Eˆ k , sys + Eˆ p , sys ) = Q + W + ∑ min ( Hˆ in + Eˆ k ,in + Eˆ p ,in )
− ∑ mout ( Hˆ out + Eˆ k ,out + Eˆ p ,out )

Energy Out

• The general case is quite complex. We shall now

consider some simplifications.

16
 Closed System
• A closed system is defined as one in which there are
no flows of material across the system boundary (but
there can still be flow of work and heat). Hence the
system mass is a constant.
Q (+ve) W (+ve)

msys vsys
Û sys
hsys
System boundary

Datum (href = 0)

• In this case, the energy balance equation simplifies to:

[ ]
msys ∆ (Uˆ sys + Eˆ k , sys + Eˆ p , sys ) = Q + W

Example: Closed System

• A tank of 100 kg of water was stirred by a 1000 W
impellor for 1 hr. During this time, the temperature of
the water increased from 25 to 30 °C. Calculate how
much heat was lost to the surroundings.
Solution: W
Diagram:

100 kg Q
Aim: Determine Q. H2O
Expectation: Q < 0
(i.e. heat flowed from the system to the surroundings)

17
Assumptions:
• No loss of water by evaporation, splashing, etc. (i.e. a
closed system).
• No change in potential or kinetic energy (i.e. baffled
tank so that motion of water is random).
• Sufficiently accurate to use a value of heat capacity
4814 J/kg·∆°C for water.
Calculations:
For a closed system, the energy balance equation is:
0 0
msys ( ∆Uˆ sys + ∆Eˆ k , sys + ∆Eˆ p , sys ) = Q + W

Rearranging: Q = msys (∆Uˆ sys ) − W

Work = Power × Time = (1000 J/s)×(3600 s)
= 3.6×105 J = 3600 kJ

• The change in internal energy is given by:

CV constant
∆Uˆ = ∫ CV dT CV (T2 − T1 )
T2
=
T1

• Recall that for liquids, CV ≈ CP, hence:

⎛ ⎞ o
∆Uˆ = C P (T2 − T1 ) = ⎜⎜ 4184
J
(
⎟⎟ 30 C − 25 oC
kg ⋅ ∆ C ⎠
o
)
⎝
= 20920 J/kg = 20.92 kJ/kg
• Substitute into the energy balance equation:
Q = msys ( ∆Uˆ sys ) − W = (100 kg )(20.92 kJ/kg ) − 3600 kJ
= 2092 kJ − 3600 kJ = −1508 kJ
• As expected, Q < 0 i.e. heat lost to surroundings.3 ☺
• ANSWER: 1508 kJ heat flow to surroundings.

18
 Steady State Open System
• A steady-state system is one in which there are no
changes with time i.e. everything remains constant.
• This also implies that the input and output mass flow
rates are equal.
• In this case, there is no accumulation of energy and
the energy balance equation simplifies to:
∑m out ( Hˆ out + Eˆ k ,out + Eˆ p ,out ) = Q + W + ∑ min ( Hˆ in + Eˆ k ,in + Eˆ p ,in )

Energy Out Energy In

• Or this can also be expressed in terms of rates, shown
with a dot above the symbol (means d/dt):
∑ m& out ( Hˆ out + Eˆ k ,out + Eˆ p ,out ) = Q& + W& + ∑ m& in ( Hˆ in + Eˆ k ,in + Eˆ p ,in )

Open Steady-State System

Output
System mout = min
Boundary vout
Tout
Pout
Feed
min
vin
Tin Constant
Pin hout

hin

Q (+ve) W (+ve)

Datum (href = 0)

19
 Example: Steady State System
• Stagnant air at 27 °C, 1 atm is sucked into a hair
dryer. It exits through a rectangular slot of length 5
cm and thickness 5 mm at a temperature of 77 °C,
pressure 1 atm and a velocity 1 m/s. Estimate the
power consumption of the hair dryer.
• Data: from Incropera & deWitt (Table A.4)

Air at 1 atm Density Heat Capacity

(kg/m3) (J/kg·∆K)
300 K 1.1614 1007
350 K 0.9950 1009

Solution
1. Diagram: W Q

Air In Air Out

T = 300 K T = 350 K
P = 1 atm P = 1 atm
v = 0 m/s v = 1 m/s

2. Assumptions:
• Steady state (i.e. no accumulation) so m& in = m& out
• No change in potential energy (equal height in and out)
• Work and heat enter, originally as electrical energy.
3. Simplify the steady state energy balance equation:
m& out ( Hˆ out + Eˆ k ,out + Eˆ p ,out ) = Q& + W& + m& in ( Hˆ in + Eˆ k ,in + Eˆ p ,in )
[
Q& + W& = m& ( Hˆ out − Hˆ in ) + Eˆ k ,out ]

20
• The mass flowrate of air can be calculated:
m& = Aout vout ρ out = (0.05 m )(0.005 m )(1 m/s )(0.995 kg/m 3 )
= 2.49 × 10 − 4 kg/s
• The change in specific enthalpy is approximated by:
)
∆H ≈ C P ,av (T2 − T1 ) = (1008 J/kg∆/ )(350 − 300 )(∆K )
= 50400 J/kg
• The specific kinetic energy of the outlet air is:
Eˆ K ,out = 12 αvout = 12 (1)(1 m/s ) = 0.5 J/kg
2 2

[
• Hence: Q& + W& = m& ( Hˆ − Hˆ ) + Eˆ
out in k , out ]
( )
= 2.49 × 10 −4 kg/s [(50400 J/kg) + 0.5 J/kg ]
= 12.5 J/s = 12.5 W
• CHECK: Is this reasonable?
• NOTE: Kinetic energy term is negligible.

Heats of Reaction
• All chemical reactions are accompanied by the
release or absorption of energy, usually in the form of
heat, and equal to the change in enthalpy between the
products and reactants.
• The heat of reaction, ∆Hrxn, is defined as the heat
absorbed by the reaction. When heat is released by
the reaction, ∆Hrxn is negative and the reaction is
called exothermic. When heat is absorbed by the
reaction, ∆Hrxn is positive, and the reaction is called
endothermic.

21
 Standard Heats of Reaction
• The heat of reaction can be dependent on the physical
states of the reactants and products, so published data
gives the standard heat of reaction, ∆H°298, which is
defined as the enthalpy change when the reaction is
carried out at atmospheric pressure with reactants and
products at 298K. The states of the substances can be
indicated by subscripts: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid and
(g) for gas. For example:

C(graphite) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) ∆H 298

o
= −393.5kJ/mol

Heats of Formation
• The heat of formation, ∆H°f, of a substance is a
special case of the heat of reaction, where the
reactants are all elements in their standard states.
(Note: The heat of formation of an element in its
standard state is defined to be zero.) For example:
3
S(s) + O 2 (g) → SO 3 (g) ∆H of = −395.2kJ/mol
2

22
Standard Heat of Combustion
• The standard heat of combustion, ∆H°c, of a
substance is the heat of reaction of the substance
when combusted with molecular oxygen under
standard conditions.
• For example:
7
C 2H 6 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2O (l) ∆H co = −1560kJ/mol
2

Reverse Reactions
• Lavoisier and Laplace discovered that
thermochemical equations can be reversed provided
the sign of the heat of reaction is reversed.
Example:
• Given:
7
C 2H 6 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2O (l) ∆H co = −1560kJ/mol
2

• It follows that:
7
2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2O (l) → C 2H 6 (g) + O 2 (g) ∆H 298
o
= 1560kJ/mol
2

23
 Combining Reactions
• Hess’s Law states that the resultant heat change in a
reaction (at constant pressure or constant volume) is
the same whether it takes place in one or several
steps. As a consequence thermochemical equations
can be added algebraically. For example:
(1) C 2H 4 (g) + 3O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 2H 2O (l) ∆H 298
o
= −1411kJ/mol
1
(2) H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → H 2O (l) ∆H 298
o
= −286kJ/mol
2
7
(3) C 2H 6 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2O (l) ∆H 298
o
= −1560kJ/mol
2

(1) + (2) - (3) C 2 H 4 (g) + H 2 (g) → C 2 H 6 (g) ∆H 298

o
= −137kJ/mol

Adiabatic Reactions
• In a reaction conducted under adiabatic conditions (Q
= 0), any heat generated (or consumed) by the
reaction will go into increasing the enthalpy of the
products. Thus
− ∆H = ∑ mi C Pi ∆T
i

or if the specific heat is a function of temperature, we

would write T p

− ∆H = ∑ mi ∫ CP (T )dT i
i Tr

where Tr and Tp are the temperatures of the reactants

and products respectively.

24
 Example
• Sulphur trioxide can be made from the following
reaction:
3
S(s) + O 2 (g) → SO 3 (g) ∆H of = −395.2kJ/mol
2
• If the reactants enter a reactor at 25°C at what
temperature will the products leave? Assume the
reaction is adiabatic, occurs at 1 atmosphere, goes to
completion, is supplied in stoichiometric ratio and the
oxygen comes from air (79% N2 and 21% O2).

Solution:
• Take a basis of 1 mole of sulphur feed.
3
S(s) + O 2 (g) → SO 3 (g) ∆H of = −395.2kJ/mol
2
• Then the air will contain 3/2 mole of O2 and
(3/2)(79/21) = 5.643 mole of N2 associated with it.
• The product contains 1 mole of SO3 and 5.643 mole
of N2.
• The specific heat of SO3 is 48.5 J/(mol·∆K) and of N2
is 30.1 J/(mol·∆K). Thus we have:
395000 J/mol = [(1 mol SO3)(48.5 J/mol SO3·∆K) +
(5.643 mol N2)(30.1 J/mol N2·∆K)]∆T
∆T = 1809 ∆K
• Hence: Tp = Tr + ∆T = 25°C + 1809 ∆K = 1834°C.

25
 Methods of Heat Transfer
• Conduction: The transfer of vibrational energy
between neighbouring atoms and molecules
without any net motion of material.
• Convection: The flow of heat by the bulk exchange
of hot and cold material.
– Natural (or Free) Convection: The movement is
caused by the difference in density of hot and
cold fluids.
– Forced Convection: The movement is caused by
an external agent (e.g. wind, a fan, etc.).
• Radiation: The flow of heat in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

T1 T2 = T1+dT
For one-dimensional steady state
conduction through a flat wall: q ′x′
k constant
q dT SS, 1D
T −T
q ′x′ = x = − k x = − kx 2 1
A dx ∆x dx
where:
• q”x = rate of heat transfer in the x direction per
unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer
[J/m2⋅s] or [W/m2] (flux);
• qx = the total flow of heat [W] via area A [m2];
• dT/dx = the temperature gradient in the x direction
[∆Κ/m];
• kx = the thermal conductivity of the material in the
x direction [W/m⋅∆Κ].

26
 Example: Conduction
• A furnace wall is 200 mm thick and made of bricks
with a thermal conductivity of 3.8 W/m·∆°C. If the
inside surface is at 950 °C and the outside surface is
at 350 °C, determine the rate of heat loss through a
section of wall of area 9 m2.
Solution: s = “surface”
1. Diagram: x positive i = “inside”
Ts,i = 950 °C o = “outside”
Ts,o = 350 °C

∆x = 0.2 m

2. Aim: Calculate qcond (W) via an area A = 9 m2.

3. Assumptions:
• Heat transfer is only in the normal direction (end
effects neglected).
• Steady state.
• Wall has constant physical properties (i.e. k is
constant).
Hence the temperature profile through the wall is a
straight line.
4. Calculations:
From Fourier’s law for SS conduction with constant k:
T2 − T1 2 (350 C − 950 C)
⎛ W ⎞
( )
o o
qx = −k x A = −⎜ 3,8 ⎟ 9m
∆x ⎝ m⋅ ∆ C ⎠
o
(0.2 m)
= 102600 W = 102.6 kW (ANSWER)

27
 Typical values of k at Room
Temperature
Material k (W/m·∆°C) Material k (W/m·∆°C)
Gases: Solids:
SO2 0.009 Styrofoam 0.036
CO2, H2 0.018 Corrugated cardboard 0.064
H2O 0.025 Paper 0.13
Air 0.026 Asbestos 0.16
Sand, dry 0.33
Liquids: Glass 0.35-1.3
Gasoline 0.13 Ice 2.2
Benzene 0.16 Brick (alumina) 3.2
Ethanol 0.18 Brick (building) 0.7
Water 0.61 Lead 34
Sulphuric Acid 0.37 Steel 45
Mercury 8.4 Aluminium 204
Sodium 85 Copper 380
Diamond 2300

Convection
• When a fluid flows past a surface which is at a
different temperature, there is an exchange of heat
between them.
• Engineers use the concept of a boundary layer of
thickness δ in which it is assumed that all of the
resistance to heat transfer occurs. The bulk fluid is
assumed to remain well mixed and uniform in
temperature:
Well-mixed T∞ ∞ = conditions in
fluid bulk far from the
surface
δ
Surface Ts
Ts − T∞ ∆T
qx = −kx A = − kA
δ δ

28
 Heat Transfer Coefficient h
• The thickness δ is unknown, so it is grouped together
with k to give a new variable the convective heat
transfer coefficient, h [W/m2⋅∆°C]:
⎛k⎞
q x = −⎜ ⎟ A∆T = − hA∆T
⎝δ ⎠
= hA(Ts − T∞ )
• Note that h includes information both about the
thermal properties of the fluid and also the flow
conditions.
• For situations with simple geometry and laminar flow,
h can be calculate theoretically. However, in the vast
majority of every day situations h must be measured
experimentally.

Correlations for h
• Experimentally measured values of h are usually
presented as dimensionless correlations of the form:
Nu = f(Re, Pr) OR Nu = f(Gr,Pr)
where the Nusselt, Reynolds, Prandlt and Grashof
numbers are defined as:
hx ρux µc gρ 2 β (Ts − T∞ )x 3
Nu ≡ Re ≡ Pr ≡ P Gr ≡
k µ k µ2
and where x is the characteristic dimension (m), ρ is
fluid density (kg/m3), µ is fluid viscosity (kg/m/s) and β
is the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient (∆K-1).
e.g. for turbulent flow in a circular pipe of diameter D,
Dittus and Boelter (1930) found that:
hD
NuD ≡ = 0,023ReD4/5 Pr n
k

29
Example: Convection
• The outside surface of a furnace wall is at 350°C.
The surrounding air is at 25°C. It is known that the
heat transfer coefficient for natural convection at
these conditions is h = 20 W/m2·∆K. Calculate the
rate of heat loss per unit area from the surface of
the wall.
Solution:
Ts,o = 350 °C
1. Diagram:
q”conv
T∞ = 25 °C
Positive x direction

2. Aim: Calculate q”conv (W/m2)

3. Assumptions:
• Steady-state.
• Radiation neglected.
• Temperature and convection coefficient are uniform
over the entire wall surface.
4. Calculations:
From Newton’s law of cooling:
q ′x′ = q x A = h (T s − T ∞ )
( )
= 20 W/m2 ⋅ K (350o C − 25o C)
= (20 W/m 2
⋅ K )(325 C)
o

⎛ W ⎞
= ⎜ 20 2 ⎟(325 + 273 K )
WRONG!
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
= 11960 W/m 2

30
 Range of Typical values of
the Heat Transfer Coefficient
Process h
(W/m2⋅∆K)
Free/Natural Convection:
- Gas 2-25
- Liquid 50-1000
Forced Convection:
- Gas 25-250
- Liquid 50-20,000
Convection with a Change of Phase
(e.g. boiling or condensation) 2500-100,000

Everyday Example:
Hot Gas vs. Saturated Vapour
• Which is hotter:
– The air just above the surface of a frypan, or
– The steam coming out of a ketal?
100°C
200+°C

• Which gas feels the hottest if you put your hand

into it? Why?

31
 When an element of air touches
your hand, it is quickly cooled to
your skin temperature.
300 °C When an element of steam touches
your hand, its temperature remains at
100°C until all of it has condensed.
100 °C
∆T = driving force for HT.
So heat transfers faster in steam.
Skin
temperature

• Air: cP = 29 J/mol·∆K. To cool air from 300 to 30°C, Q = cP∆T =

7830 J/mol.
• Steam: ∆hvl = 40626 J/mol. Water cP = 75 J/mol·∆K. To cool steam
from 100 to 30°C, Q = 45900 J/mol (6 times greater!)
So steam heats up your skin more quickly than air, so it feels hotter,
even though in actual fact it is not as hot as the air!

Radiation

32
 Radiation
• All surfaces radiate thermal electromagnetic
radiation. The perfect emitter is called a black
body. This radiates energy with an emissive
power Eb (W/m2): Eb

Eb = σTs4 Ts
Black Body

where σ = 5,67×10-8 W/m2⋅K4 is the Stefan-

Boltzmann constant and Ts is the absolute
temperature (K).
• Non-ideal emitters have an emissivity ε less than
1.0 and radiate energy at a rate:
E = εEb = εσTs4

Irradiation G
• The total amount of radiation incident on a surface is
called the irradiation G (W/m2). For a non-convex
surface in a large closed space, it can be proved that the
surroundings radiate energy as if they are a black body.
So provided the medium in between does not interfere
Tsurr
(non-participating): Irradiation
G = σTsurr
4 Reflected
G = σTsurr4
(1-α)G
Ts
Absorbed, αG
• All incident radiation must be reflected, transmitted
or absorbed.
• The fraction absorbed is called the absorptivity α (0 <
α < 1). If the surface is opaque, then none is
transmitted, so the rest must be reflected.

33
 Exchange of Radiation
• The net rate of radiation heat exchange between a non-
convex surface and a large closed surroundings with a
Tsurr
non-participating medium in between is:
q (1-α)G G
′′ =
qrad = εEb − αG = εσTs4 − ασTsurr
4
εEb
A Ts
αG
• A grey surface is defined as one that has an absorptivity
which is the same as its emissivity, α = ε. So in this case:
′′ = εσ (Ts4 − Tsurr
qrad 4
)
• NOTE: Because radiation is proportional to T4, it is a
very important mechanism at high temperatures (e.g.
inside a furnace), but it is usually negligible for heat
exchange between objects at or near room temperature
when there is forced convection involved.

Example: Radiation
• The outside of a furnace wall has an emissivity of
0.7 and temperature of 350°C. Calculate the net rate
of radiative heat loss from the wall if the
surroundings are at 30°C.
Solution:
1. Diagram:
Ts,o= 350ºC

q”rad Tsurr=
30ºC
ε = 0.7

2. Aim: Calculate q”rad (W/m2)

34
3. Assumptions:
• Surroundings are at a uniform temperature and
sufficiently large that they act as a black body.
• The surface of the wall is flat (non-convex) and has a
uniform temperature.
• The surface is grey (α = ε).
• The medium in between (air) is non-participating.
4. Calculations: q′′ = q = εσ T 4 − T 4
rad A
(s surr )
[
= (0.7 )(5.67 × 10 −8 )(350 4 ) − (30 4 ) ]
= 596 W/m 2
U
(
′′ = (0.7 ) 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 ×
qrad )
[(350 + 273K ) − (30 + 273K )] = 5645 W/m
4 4 2

For solar radiation

Typical values of α and ε

(~ 5000K) onto a For room

surface at room temperature
temperature, radiation,
Material αroom←solar εroom = αroom←room
Ag, polished 0.07 0.01
Al, bright foil or polished 0.1-0.3 0.04-0.09
Cu, polished 0.18 0.02-0.04
Galvanised iron, weathered 0.89 0.23-0.28
Hg, clean - 0.09
Stainless steel #301, polished 0.37 0.16
White paint, gloss 0.18 0.92-0.96
Black paint, flat 0.97 0.96-0.98
Aluminium paint 0.55 0.51-0.67
Asphalt pavement, clean 0.93 -
Concrete, rough - 0.94
Earth, plowed field 0.75 -
Grass 0.75-0.80 -
Gravel 0.29 -
Red brick, rough 0.7-0.75 0.93
White paper - 0.95
Wood 0.28 0.90-0.94
Snow, clean - 0.82
Ice - 0.97
Water, deep - 0.96

35
 Radiation Heat Transfer
Coefficient, hr
• The equation for the net rate of radiation exchange
between a non-convex grey surface and large
surroundings can4 be written as:
′′ = εσ (Ts − Tsurr )
qrad 4

= εσ (Ts + Tsurr )(Ts2 + Tsurr

2
)(Ts − Tsurr )
= hr (Ts − Tsurr )

where hr = εσ (Ts + Tsurr )(Ts2 + Tsurr

2
)
NOTeE: hr is very sensitive to the temperatures,
whereas convective heat transfer coefficients h are
roughly constant over small temperature ranges.

Convection and Radiation

Combined
• For simultaneous heat transfer by convection and radiation
together we may add the two components:

q = qconv + qrad
= hA(Ts − T∞ ) + εAσ (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)

q”rad Tsurr
Ts
q”conv
T∞

36
 Example: Combined
Convection & Radiation
• A furnace wall has an emissivity of 0.8 and is grey
in behaviour. The surface temperature is 350°C. Air
at 25°C flows past the wall with a heat transfer
coefficient of 18 W/m2·∆K. The surroundings some
are at a temperature of 30°C. Calculate the rate of
heat loss from the wall.
Solution: Ts,o= 350ºC
q”rad
1. Diagram: Tsurr= 30ºC

q”conv
2. Aim: T∞= 25ºC
h = 18 W/m2·∆K
Calculate q”Total (W/m2)

3. Assumptions:
• Surroundings large with black body behaviour.
• Wall surface is not convex.
• Temperature and convection coefficient uniform
over the whole wall surface.
• The air is non-participating.
4. Calculations:
For convection and radiation together:
q′′ = qconv ′′ = h(Ts − T∞ ) + εσ (Ts4 − Tsurr
′′ + qrad 4
)
( )( ) ( )
= 18 W/m 2 ⋅ ∆K 350 − 25o C + 0,8 5,67 ×10 −8 W/m 2K 4 ×
[(350 + 273K ) − (30 + 273K ) ]
4 4

= 5850 + 6450 W/m 2 = 12300 W/m 2

37
 Energy Balance at a Surface
• At a surface, there can be no accumulation of
energy. So: E& in = E& out
′′ = qconv
• In other words: qcond ′′ + qrad
′′

T∞
′′
qconv
′′
qcond Tsurr
′′
q rad

• The rate of conduction of heat to a surface must

equal the combined rate of heat lost by radiation
and convection. This equation also holds across a
solid object at steady state (no accumulation).

Example: Energy Balance

• A furnace wall has an inside surface temperature of
500°C. The wall is 10 cm thick and has a thermal
conductivity of 3.0 W/m·∆°C. Air at 20°C flows
past the outside surface with a heat transfer
coefficient of 15 W/m2·∆K. The walls outside
surface has an emissivity of 0.85 and the
surroundings are at 25°C. Determine the wall’s
outside surface temperature, Ts,o.
1. Diagram: Ts,o = ?
q”rad Tsurr=
q”cond 25ºC
Ts,i =
500ºC q”conv
Air
2. Aim: Determine Ts,o. ∆x = 0.1 m T∞= 20ºC

3. Expectation? 500 > Ts,o > 20°C

38
4. Assumptions:
• Steady state (hence q”cond = q”conv + q”rad)
• Conduction in normal direction only (no end effects).
• Properties of the wall constant (i.e. k constant), giving a
straight temperature profile in the wall.
• Uniform surface temperature and heat transfer
coefficient.
• Surface is grey and non-conved, with the surroundings
large enough that they are blackbody and the air does
not participate: Hence: q”rad = εσ(Ts4 - Tsurr4).
5. Calculations: q′′ = q′′ + q′′
cond conv rad
(Ts ,o − Ts ,i )
−k = h(Ts ,o − T∞ ) + εσ (Ts4,o − Tsurr
4
)
∆x
⎡W ⎤
− 30(Ts ,o − 773) = 15(Ts ,o − 293) + 4.82 × 10 −8 (Ts4,o − 2984 ) ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣m ⎦

One equation with just one unknown (Ts,o), so there is

a solution, but it can’t be found analytically.
• Find answer by trial and error e.g. use a spreadsheet:
Convection + Conduction -
Guess T ext Conduction Convection Radiation Radiation Sum
2 2 2 2 2
(K) (W/m ) (W/m ) (W/m ) (W/m ) (W/m )

600 5190 4605 5866 10471 5281

500 8190 3105 2632 5737 -2453
550 6690 3855 4030 7885 1195
530 7290 3555 3423 6978 -312
535 7140 3630 3568 7198 58
534 7170 3615 3539 7154 -16
534.5 7155 3623 3554 7176 21
534.22 7163 3618 3545 7164 0

ANSWER: Ts,o = 534K = 261°C. Too hot to safely touch!

NOTE: As hoped, 500 > Ts,o > 20°C. 3 ☺

39
 Numerical Solution Method:
− 30(Ts ,o − 773) = 15(Ts ,o − 293) + 4.82 × 10 −8 (Ts4,o − 2984 )
• Re-arrange equation into the form Ts,o = f(Ts,o):
45Ts ,o = 27585 − 4.82 × 10 −8 (Ts4,o − 2984 )
Ts ,o = 613 − 1.071× 10 −9 (Ts4,o − 2984 )
• Try an initial guess Ts,o = 600K and calculate:
Ts ,o = 613 − 1.071× 10 −9 (600 4 − 2984 ) = 482.6 K
• Use Ts,o = 482.6 K and obtain:
Ts ,o = 613 − 1.071×10 −9 (482.6 4 − 2984 ) = 563.3 K
• Continue: 563.3 K → 513.6 K → 546.92 K →
525.6 K → 539.7 K → … → 534.2 K.
• NOTE: The Goal Seek or Solver routines in Excel
spreadsheets can do this automatically.

Thermal Resistance, Rt
• Fourier’s Law (SS, 1-D, k constant) can be written:
kA (T − Ts 2 ) driving force
qx = (Ts1 − Ts 2 ) = s1 =
∆x Rt ,cond resistance
where: T − Ts ,2 ∆x
R t , cond ≡ s ,1 =
qx kA
• The driving force for heat transfer is the temperature
difference (∆T) and the resistance is a function of
the physical properties of the medium and the
geometry.
• Similarly for convection and radiation:
T −T 1 T −T 1
Rt ,conv ≡ s ∞ = Rt ,rad ≡ s surr =
qconv hA qrad hr A
where: hr = εσ (Ts + Tsurr )(Ts2 + Tsurr
2
)

40
 Thermal Resistances in Series
• When 2 or more resistances are arranged in series, at
steady state the rate of heat transfer through each one
must be the same. Hence:
T0 T1 T2
T0 − T1 T1 − T2 ∆T
q = q1 = = q2 = =
R1 R2 RT q 1 2
• Re-arranging:
T −T T −T
R1 = 0 1 RT and R2 = 1 2 RT
∆T ∆T
• Hence:R + R = ⎛⎜ T0 − T1 + T1 − T2 ⎞⎟ R = R
1 2
⎝ ∆T ∆T ⎠
T T

• In general, for any number of resistances in series:

RT = Rt,1 + Rt,2 + … = ΣRt,i
i.e. the total resistance is simply the sum of the
individual resistance.

Thermal Resistances in Parallel

• It can be shown that for two or more resistances in
parallel, one over the total resistance equals the sum of
the inverse resistances:
∆T ∆T ∆T
qT = = q1 + q 2 = + T0 T1
RT R1 R2 q2
• Dividing both sides by ∆T: qT
2
?
1 1 1
= + + ... q1 1
RT R1 R2
• NOTE: This assumes that heat transfer is one
dimensional only. However, in practice if the
difference in resistance between the two elements is
too great, then heat will flow between them and the
surface temperature will not be uniform.

41
Example: Resistances in Series
• A furnace wall is 10 cm thick and has an area 5
m2. Its thermal conductivity is 3.5 W/m·∆°C. On
the inside surface, the air temperature is T∞,1 =
200°C with a convective heat transfer coefficient
h1 = 40 W/m2·∆°C. On the outside surface, the air
temperature is T∞,2 = 25°C with a heat transfer
coefficient of h2 = 15 W/m2·∆°C. At steady state
and neglecting radiation, determine:
1. The total thermal resistance, RT.
2. The rate of heat flow through the wall, qx.
3. The outside surface temperature of the wall.

Solution
• Diagram:
T∞,i = h1 k h2 T∞,o =
200°C 25°C

• Thermal Circuit: T∞,i = T∞,o =

200°C Ts,i Ts,o 25°C

• Assumptions: Rconv,i Rcond Rconv,o

– SS
– k constant
– 1D heat transfer (end effects ignored)
– h and T uniform on both surfaces.
– Radiation negligible
– No fouling on the surfaces.

42
1) For resistances in series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1
R1 = Rconv ,i = = = 0.005 ∆K/W
(
hi A 40 W/m ⋅ ∆K 5 m2
2
)( )
∆x 0.1 m
R2 = Rcond = = = 0.00571 ∆K/W
kA (3.5 W/m ⋅ ∆K )(5 m2 )
1 1
R3 = Rconv ,o = = = 0.0133 ∆K/W
ho A (15 W/m ⋅ ∆K )(5 m2 )
2

Hence: RT = 0.02404 ∆K/W (ANSWER 1)

2)
∆T 200 o C - 25 o C 175 ∆o C
qx = = = = 7279 W
RT 0.02404 ∆ K/W 0.02404 ∆ K/W
(ANSWER 2)

3) Determine Ts,i and Ts,o. Expected that …?

200ºC > Ts,i > Ts,o > 25ºC
• Recall that at steady state:
T −T T −T T −T
q = ∞ ,i s ,i = s ,i s , o = s , o ∞ , o
Rconv ,i Rcond Rconv ,o
• Hence at the inside wall surface:
T∞ ,i − Ts ,i = q x Rconv ,i = (7279 W )(0.005 ∆K/W ) = 36.4∆K
Ts ,i = T∞ ,i − q x Rconv ,i = 200o C − 36.4∆K = 163.6 o C
and on the outside surface:
Ts ,o − T∞ ,o = q x Rconv ,o = (7279 W )(0.0133 ∆K/W ) = 96.8∆K
Ts ,o = 25o C + 96.8∆K = 121.8o C (ANSWER 3)
NOTE: As expected:
200ºC > Ts,i > Ts,o > 25ºC 3 ☺

43