CHAPTER 1: Introduction

What is heat transfer?

Three modes of heat transfer:

1. conduction
2. convection
3. radiation

1.2.1 Conduction

Energy transport due to particle interactions within a substance from more

energetic particles to less energetic particles
* diffusion of energy *
The process of conduction heat transfer occurs through a medium
(solid, liquid, gas)

Conduction can be described by a rate equation known as Fourier’s law:

q′′ = −k∇ ⋅ T

q′′ : heat flux; rate of heat transfer per unit area (W/m2)
∇ ⋅ T : temperature gradient
k : thermal conductivity; property (W/m⋅K)

Note: The negative sign is a consequence of heat transfer in the direction of

decreasing temperature. Also, the area is perpendicular to the direction of
heat transfer (i.e, the direction of the flux).

1.1
for example, one-dimensional plane wall heat transfer:
dT
q′′ = − k and T = T ( x)
dx
dT T2 − T1
=
dx L

graphically (temperature profile)

The total rate of heat transfer: q= q ′′ ⋅ A (where A is the surface area

through which the heat transfers)

1.2
1.2.2 Convection

Energy transport due to two combined effects:

• diffusion: random molecular energy
• advection: bulk (macroscopic) fluid motion

The process of convection occurs between a moving fluid and a surface at

different temperatures

• forced convection: flow is caused by external means

• free (natural) convection: flow is induced by buoyancy
• mixed convection: forced-free convection
• latent heat exchange: flow is induced due to a phase change
(e.g., boiling condensation)

Convection can be described by Newton’s law of cooling:

q′′ = h(Ts − T∞ ) Ts > T∞

q′′ = h(T∞ − Ts ) Ts < T∞
q′′ : heat flux
h : convection heat transfer coefficient; characteristic of the fluid (W/m2⋅K);
function of the fluid velocity

1.3
1.2.3 Radiation

Energy emitted by matter at a finite temperature. The process occurs due to

energy transport as electromagnetic waves. (valid for solid, liquid, gas)

Radiation emitted by a surface originates from the thermal energy of the

medium

Energy transfer due to radiation from a surface is known as emissive power,

E, and is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

Eb = σTs4
b : blackbody (ideal radiator)
σ : Stefan-Boltzmann constant; σ =5.67×10-8 W/(m2K4)
Ts : absolute surface temperature (K)

For a real surface: E = εσTs4

where ε is the emissivity of the surface (property) and 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1

Irradiation: incident radiation on a surface from the surroundings; e.g.,

G = σTsur
4

Note that some or all of the irradiation may be absorbed by a surface, thus
increasing the thermal energy of the surface

Gabs = αG

where α is the absorptivity of the surface (property) and 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

1.4
If the radiation and irradiation are independent of wavelength, α = ε , and
the surface is referred to as a gray surface.

For radiation exchange between a small surface and a large isothermal

surface (e.g., surroundings), the small surface may be assumed as a gray
surface.

1.5
1.2.4 Thermodynamics

Comments:
(i) Thermodynamics is concerned with equilibrium states of matter; a
temperature gradient is not possible.
(ii) Heat transfer is inherently a nonequilibrium process.

This course will focus on the mechanisms and methods to determine rates of
heat transfer.

1.3.1 Conservation of Energy

− control volume analysis

E& in , E& out : rate of thermal and mechanical energy across the CV;
associated with mass flow rates of energy such as internal, kinetic
and potential energies, heat transfer (e.g., conduction, convection,
radiation) and work transfer
E& g : energy generation within CV (chemical, electrical, etc.)
E& st : rate of change of energy stored in CV
(internal, kinetic and/or potential energy)

dE
On a rate basis: E& st = st = E& in + E& g − E& out
dt
For a discrete time interval, ∆t: ∆E st = Ein + E g − Eout

1.6
To connect theories between thermodynamics and heat transfer, examine the
conservation of energy equation. One approach is to rederive the First Law
of Thermodynamics for a closed system:

1.7
1.3.2 Surface Energy Balance

− perform an energy balance analysis at a surface (infinitesimal CV)

conservation of energy: E& st = E& in + E& g − E& out

Comments:
(i) Energy generation may occur within the medium, but it does not
affect the surface energy balance.
(ii) The overall process may be steady state or transient, but the surface
energy balance still reduces to E& in = E& out

1.8
2.8