University of Northern Border University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering

Heat Transfer
Lecture notes

Chapter 1

Introduction: conservation of energy

• Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference.

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time and q” W/m2
surface area

• Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and
electronic states of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter. It
represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is directly
linked to the temperature of matter.

U J
u J/kg
 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.
Requires a medium
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of motion for fluid flow
over a surface.
Requires a medium
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron
configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
Does not require a medium
Electromagnetic waves spectrum
 Heat Transfer Rates
Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q    k T

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m

Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a

plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:

dT T T
qx   k  k 2 1
dx L
T1  T2
qx  k (1.2)
L

Heat rate [W]: qx  qx  A

 Heat Transfer Rates
Convection
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of dynamic (velocity) and thermal boundary layers:

Newton’s law of cooling:

q   h  Ts  T  (1.3a)

In this case, q”>0 when heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid.

h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m 2  K)

Radiation
Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G ), as well as convection if Ts  T  .
Energy outflow due to emission:
E   Eb   Ts4 (1.5)
E : Emissive power  W/m  2

 : Surface emissivity  0    1
Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emitter)
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant  5.67×10 -8 W/m 2  K 4 

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs   G
Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation (W/m 2 )
 : Surface absorptivity  0    1
G : Irradiation  W/m 2 
Net radiation heat flux (from the surface to the surrounding): q”rad = E - G
 Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

G  Gsur   Tsur
4

If    , the net radiation heat flux from the

Case of a surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
“gray    Eb  Ts    G    Ts4  Tsur
qrad 4
 (1.7)
surface”
Alternatively,

  h r  Ts  Tsur 
qrad (1.8)

h r : Radiation heat transfer coefficient  W/m 2  K 

h r    Ts  Tsur   Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

(1.10)
For combined convection and radiation,

q   qconv   h  Ts  T   hr  Ts  Tsur 
  qrad
 The Thermal Resistance Concept

From Equations 1.2, 1.3, and 1.8, the heat transfer rate can be expressed in the form

where ΔT is a relevant temperature difference and A is the area normal to the direction
of heat transfer.

The quantity Rt is called a thermal resistance and takes different forms for the three
different modes of heat transfer.

For example, Equation 1.2 (one dimensional conduction):

 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
•The subjects of heat transfer and thermodynamics are highly
complementary and interrelated.

•Thermodynamics: make use Q or q

•heat transfer: How to compute Q or q starting from transfer

mode considerations

The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement that the

total energy of a system is conserved

Type of System:
•Closed System
•Open System
• For a closed

Closed System of Mass (M)

Assuming Heat Transfer to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the System (Outflow).

Over a time interval

(1.11a)
Q  W  Esttot

For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy

Q  W  U t
Internal thermal energy

At an instant
 dU t
q W 
dt
 Open System
• Over a Time Interval
Ein  Eout  Eg  Est (1.11b)

At an instant t
 
E in E out :
, rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.

Eg : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another enegy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.


E st : rate of change of energy storage in the system.
  
dEst 
Conservation of Energy E in  E out  E g  dt  E st (1.11c)
1st Law of thermodynamics when there is no energy generation

In most open system applications of interest changes in kinetic and potential energy
between the inflow and outflow conditions of Equation 1.12d may be neglected.

The sum of thermal energy and flow work per unit mass may be replaced by the enthalpy
per unit mass (h).

If the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with constant specific heats or an

incompressible liquid with constant specific heat and if there is no work transfer,
Equation 1.12d is reduced to the simplified steady-flow thermal energy equation:

Where cp=cv=c in the case of an incompressible liquid

Example 1.3: Application to thermal response of a conductor with Ohmic
heating (generation):

• Involves change in thermal energy and for an incompressible substance.

dU t dT
 Mc
dt dt

• Heat transfer is from the conductor (negative q )


• Generation may be viewed as electrical work done on the system (negative W)
 Example 1.5: Application to isothermal solid-liquid phase change in a container:
If the outer surface of the wall is heated to a temperature T1 > Tf to melt the
ice, obtain an expression for the time needed to melt the entire mass of ice and, in turn,
deliver cooling water to, and energize, the fuel cell.

and
Tf = 0 ⁰C

Apply the first law over the time period Δt=tm

Latent Heat
of Fusion

and

where
 THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE
A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation Energy (Instant in Time):
 
Ein  E out  0 (1.12)

• Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.

• With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

  qconv
qcond   qrad
  0

k
T1  T2
L
 
 h  T2  T    2 T24  Tsur
4
0
 Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems: Methodology

1. Schematic: Draw a schematic of the physical system. If application of the conservation

laws is anticipated, represent the required control surface or surfaces by dashed lines
on the schematic. Identify relevant heat transfer processes by appropriately labeled
arrows on the schematic.

2. Assumptions: List all pertinent simplifying assumptions.

3. Properties: Compile property values needed for subsequent calculations and identify
the source from which they are obtained.

4. Analysis: Begin your analysis by applying appropriate conservation laws, and introduce
rate equations as needed. Develop the analysis as completely as possible before
substituting
numerical values. Perform the calculations needed to obtain the desired results.

5. Critically review your results: Units, order of magnitude, inference of trends obtained
by performing additional what-if and parameter sensitivity calculations.
Relevance of Heat Transfer

There are many examples in engineering and everyday life of heat transfer processes:

• building insulation
• power generation
• manufacturing, e.g., steel furnaces
• aerospace, e.g., heat shields
• convection ovens

• cooking
• feeling hot or cold

All situations where heat is involved

Problem 1.31: Power dissipation from chips operating at a surface temperature
of 85C and in an enclosure whose walls and air are at 25C for
(a) free convection and (b) forced convection.

Schematic: T sur = 2 5 oC
S u b s tra te
A ir q ra d
o C h i p , P e le c
= 25 C o
h = 4 .2 (T s - )
1 /4 T s = 8 5 C ,  = 0 . 6 0
or q conv L = 15 m m
W /m 2 -K

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure, (3)
Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by conduction through the substrate.
Analysis:
Pelec  qconv  qrad  hA  Ts  T    A  Ts4  Tsur4 
A  L2 =  0.015m  =2.25×10-4 m 2
2

(a) If heat transfer is by natural convection,

qconv  CA  Ts  T  =4.2W/m 2  K 5/4 2.25×10-4 m 2
5/ 4
   60K 
5/4
=0.158W
qrad  0.60  2.25×10-4 m 2  5.67×10-8 W/m 2  K 4  358 -298  K
4 4 4
=0.065W
Pelec  0.158W+0.065W=0.223W

(b) If heat transfer is by forced convection,

qconv  hA  Ts  T  =250W/m 2  K 4  2.25×10 -4 m 2   60K  =3.375W
Pelec  3.375W+0.065W=3.44W
Problem 1.43: Thermal processing of silicon wafers in a two-zone furnace. Determine
(a) the initial rate of change of the wafer temperature and (b) the steady-state temperature.

KNOWN: Silicon wafer positioned in furnace with top and bottom surfaces exposed to hot
and cool zones, respectively.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of change of the wafer temperature from a value of Tw,i  300 K, and (b)
steady-state temperature. Is convection significant? Sketch the variation of wafer temperature
with vertical distance.
SCHEMATIC:

•
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Wafer temperature is uniform, (2) Hot and cool zones have uniform
temperatures, (3) Radiation exchange is between small surface (wafer) and large enclosure
(chamber, hot or cold zone), and (4) Negligible heat losses from wafer to pin holder.

ANALYSIS: The energy balance on the wafer includes convection from the upper (u) and
lower (l) surfaces with the ambient gas, radiation exchange with the hot- and cool-zone and an
energy storage term for the transient condition. Hence, from Eq. (1.11c),
  
E in  E out  E st
or, per unit surface area
d Tw
 , h  qrad
qrad  , c  qcv
 , u  qcv
 , l   cd
dt

4
 Tsur ,h
 Tw 
4   T 4
sur , c Tw u  
w   l 
4  h T T  h T T
w     cd
d Tw
dt
(a) For the initial condition, the time rate of change of the wafer temperature is determined
using the foregoing energy balance with Tw  Tw,i  300 K,

   
0.65  5.67  108 W / m 2  K 4 15004  300 4 K 4  0.65  5.67  10 8 W / m 2  K 4 3304  3004 K4

8 W / m 2  K  300  700  K  4 W / m 2  K  300  700  K 

2700 kg / m3  875 J / kg  K 0.00078 m  d Tw / dt  i

 d Tw / dt  i  104 K / s
(b) For the steady-state condition, the energy storage term is zero, and the energy balance can
be solved for the steady-state wafer temperature, Tw  Tw,ss .


0.65  1500 4  Tw,ss
4
  
K 4  0.65  330 4  Tw,ss
4 K4

   
8 W / m 2  K Tw,ss  700 K  4 W / m 2  K Tw,ss  700 K  0

Tw,ss  1251 K

To assess the relative importance of convection, solve the energy balances assuming no
convection. With  d Tw / dt  i  101 K / s and Tw,ss  1262 K. , we conclude that the radiation
exchange processes control the initial rate of change and the steady-state temperature.

If the wafer were elevated above the present operating position, its temperature would
increase, since the lower surface would begin to experience radiant exchange with
progressively more of the hot zone. Conversely, by lowering the wafer, the upper surface
would experience less radiant exchange with the hot zone, and its temperature would decrease.
The temperature-distance relation might appear as shown in the sketch.
 Problem 1.48: Cooling of spherical canister used to store reacting chemicals.
Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the canister temperature,
(b) the steady-state temperature, and (c) the effect of convection
on the steady-state temperature.

535 J/kg·K

KNOWN: Inner surface heating and new environmental conditions associated with a spherical
shell of prescribed dimensions and material.

FIND: (a) Governing equation for variation of wall temperature with time and the initial rate of
change, (b) Steady-state wall temperature and, (c) Effect of convection coefficient on canister
temperature.
   
dEst 
recall
E in  E out  E g  dt  E st (1.11c)
SCHEMATIC:

MCp(dT/dt)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible temperature gradients in wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform,
time-independent heat flux at inner surface.

PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless Steel, AISI 302:  = 8055 kg/m3, c p = 535 J/kgK.

  E
out  Est .
ANALYSIS: (a) Performing an energy balance on the shell at an instant of time, E 
in
Identifying relevant processes and solving for dT/dt,

    4

qi 4 ri2  h 4 ro2  T  T     ro3  ri3 cp
3
 dT
dt
dT 3  q  r 2  hr 2  T  T   .

 
i o  
dt  c r3  r3  i
p o i
Substituting numerical values for the initial condition, find
 W 2 W 2 
3 105  0.5m   500  0.6m   500  300  K 
dT 
  m2 m2  K 
 kg J 
dt i 0.6    0.5   m3
3 3
8055 535 
m3 kg  K  
dT 
  0.084 K/s
dt i

 = 0, it follows that
(b) Under steady-state conditions with E st

   
qi 4 ri2  h 4 ro2  T  T 

2 2
qi  ri  105 W/m 2  0.5m 
T  T     300K     439K
h  ro  2
500W/m  K  0.6m 

(c) Parametric calculations show a sharp increase in temperature with decreasing values of h < 1000
W/m2K. For T > 380 K, boiling will occur at the canister surface, and for T > 410 K a condition known
as film boiling (Chapter 10) will occur. The condition corresponds to a precipitous reduction in h and
increase in T.
 1000

Te m p e ra tu re , T (K ) 900

800

700

600

500

400

300
100 400 800 2000 6000 10000

Convection coefficient, h(W/m^2.K)

Although the canister remains well below the melting point of stainless steel for h = 100 W/m 2K, boiling
should be avoided, in which case the convection coefficient should be maintained at h > 100 W/m2K.