Chapter 7

FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS

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 Chapter Objectives

End of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of feedback control
2. Explain P, I and D controllers

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 Introduction
• Consider the continuous blending process, shown
in Fig.
IP

Electrical Signal
Pneumatic signal A
C xsp
x1, w1
x2, w2
A
T xm
x, V

x, w

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 Control system
Control objective:
To keep the tank exit composition x at the
desired setpoint by adjusting w2.
Measurement : Composition Analyzer-
Transmitter (AT)

Feedback controller: AC Automatic Controller

Final control element: Pneumatic control valve

Current-to-pneumatic transducer: I/P

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 Historical Perspective:

1930s – Commercial Three-mode controllers with

proportional, integral and derivative
(PID) feedback control action
1940s – Widespread acceptance of pneumatic
PID controllers
1950s – Electronic counterparts in the market

1960s – Computer applications

1980s – Use of digital hardware

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Block diagram of a feedback control loop:

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 Basic Control Modes
Proportional, Integral and Derivative
Proportional Control

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the

error signal to zero.
Define an error signal, e, by

e(t )  y SP (t )  y m (t ) (6.1)

where y sp = set point

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 • For proportional control, the controller output is
proportional to the error signal

p(t)  p  K c e(t) (6.2)

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 Function of proportional term

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 Proportional Band, PB:

100%
Definition : PB 
Kc

• Applies when Kc is dimensionless

• Small (narrow) PB corresponds to large Kc

• Large (wide) PB corresponds to small Kc

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 Ideal vs. actual

Ideal controller does not

include physical limits

A controller saturates
when its output reaches a
physical limit, either pmax
or pmin.

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 Proportional controller
In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal
proportional controller, define a deviation variable
as
p (t )  p (t )  p (6.4)
Then (6.2) can be written as
p (t )  K c e(t ) (6.5)
Taking Laplace transform of (6.5) and rearranging
we get P ( s )
 Kc (6.6)
E (s)

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 • An inherent limitation of proportional controller is
that a steady-state error (offset) occurs after a set-
point change or a sustained disturbance.
• Offset can be eliminated by manually resetting
either the set-point or bias after an offset occurs –
impractical.

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 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
Kc can be made positive or negative

• Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

• “output increases as input
decreases (measured
value, ym(t))"

• Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)

• “controller output increases
as input increases
(measured value, ym(t))"

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 Integral Control
reset control, floating control
For integral action, the controller output depends
on the integral of the error signal over time,
1 t
p(t)  p 
I  e(t )dt
0 (6.7)

where  I is an adjustable parameter and referred to

as the integral time constant or reset time, has units
of time.
The transfer P (s) 1
 (6.8)
function: E(s)  I s

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 Integral Control
• An important practical advantage: Eliminates offset.

• For the process being controlled to be at steady state, the

controller output p must be constant so that the manipulated
variable is also constant.
• Eq. (6.7) implies that p changes with time unless e(t) = 0.
• This desirable situation occurs unless the controller output
or the final control element saturates.
• The control action by the integral controller is very little
until the error signal has persisted for sometime.
• On the other hand, proportional controller takes immediate
corrective action as soon as an error is detected.

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 Function of integral term

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 PI Controller
Integral control is used in conjunction with
proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI)
controller:
 1
t

p (t )  p  K c e(t )   e(t )dt  (6.9)
 I 0 

The corresponding transfer function is:

P(s)  1 
 K c 1   (6.10)
E(s)  Is 

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 PI Controller

The
  response of the PI controller to a unit step
change in e(t) is shown in Fig.

1/ I - repeats per minute

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 PI Controller
Disadvantages:
• Produces oscillatory response
• Reset windup

When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes

quite large and the controller output eventually saturates –
reset windup or integral windup.
Antireset windup: Temporarily halting the integral action
whenever the control output saturates.
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 Reset windup
SP=setpoint
PV=process
variable to
control

Valve
movement

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 Anti wind-up

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 Derivative control
Rate action, pre-act, anticipatory control

• Anticipate the future error by considering its rate of

change.
• For ideal derivative action,
de(t )
p (t )  p   D (6.11)
dt
where  D is the derivative time, and has units of time.

As long as the error is constant de/dt = 0, the controller

output is equal to p .

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 Derivative control
• Derivative action is never used alone.
• Always used in conjunction with P or PI control.
PD controller has the transfer function
P (s)
 K c 1   D s  (6.12)
E(s)

The derivative control action tends to stabilize the

controlled process.

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 PID Controller
PID control algorithm is given by

 1
t
de 
p (t )  p  K c e(t )   e(t )dt    D  (6.13)
 I 0 dt 

Transfer function of an ideal controller (parallel form)

P (s)  1 

 K c 1    D s  (6.14)
E(s)  Is 
Transfer function – actual (Series form)
P(s)   s  1   Ds  1 
 K c  I   (6.15)
E(s)   Is   Ds  1 

lead / lag
units
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 ON-OFF controllers
Synonyms: “two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.

Ideal controller More practical controller

(Dead band)
• Special case of proportional controller with very high
gain.
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 Typical responses of Feedback
control systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a sustained
disturbance occurs (e.g. step change in load variable)
No control
New steady state is
reached
P control
Offset reduced
 PI control
Offset eliminated
Oscillatory response
 PID control
Oscillations reduced
No offset
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 Too small a value of Kc
Sluggish response
Larger deviation
Too large a value of Kc
Exhibit oscillatory or unstable
behavior
Intermediate values of Kc is desirable
D
Increasing tends to improve the
response by reducing the maximum
deviation, response time, and degree
of oscillation
D
If is too large, measurement noise
is amplified and the response may
become oscillatory.
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 • Increasing the integral time makes the controller more
sluggish.
• Offset will be eliminated for all values  I
• For large values of  I , it takes very long time to return
to the set-point.

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 Summary of the Characteristics of the
Most Commonly Used Controller Modes
1. Two Position:
• Inexpensive
• Extremely simple

2. Proportional:
• Simple
• Inherently stable when properly tuned
• Easy to tune
• Experiences offset at steady state

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 3. Proportional plus reset:
• No offset
• Better dynamic response than reset alone
• Possibilities exist for instability due to lag introduced

4. Proportional plus rate:

• Stable
• Less offset than proportional alone (use of higher gain
possible).
• Reduces lags, i.e., more rapid response.

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 5. Proportional plus reset plus rate:
• Most complex
• Rapid response
• No offset
• Difficult to tune
• Best control if properly tuned.

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 Conclusion!

• Concept of feedback control

• P, I, D controller modes
• Advantages and disadvantages
• Motivation for additional modes

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