1 Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction

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2 Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction
In this chapter we will study the following:
• Control system application
• History of control systems
• How you benefite from studying control
systems
• The basic features and configurations of
control systems
• Analysis and design objectives
• The design process
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3 Chapter 1: Introduction

Control System Applications

Control systems are an inegral part of modern
society. Numerous applications are all around us:
• The rockets fire, and space shuttle lifts off to earth
orbit;
• In splashing cooling water , a metalic part is
automatically machined;
• A self guided vehicle delivering material to
workstations in an earospace assembly plant glides
along the floor seeking its destination.

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Application: In Nature
We are not only creators of automatically
controlled system; these systems also exist in
nature. Within our bodies are numerous control
systems such as
• The pancreas, which regulates our blood sugar
• In time of “fight or flight” our adrenalin increases
along with our hearth rate , causing more oxygen
to be delivered our cells.
• Our eyes follow a moving object to keep it in
wiev; our hands are grasp the object and place it
precisely at a predetermined location.
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5 Chapter 1: Introduction

Application: Nonphysical
Even the nonphysical world appears to be
automatically regulated. Models have been
suggested showing automatic control of student
performance. The input to the model is the
student’s available study time, and the output is
the grade. The model can be used to predict the
time required for the grade to rise if a sudden
increase in study time is available. Using this
model, you can determine whether increased study
is worth the effort during the last week of the
term.
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6 Chapter 1: Introduction

Control System Definition

• A control system consist of subsystems and
processes (or plants) assembled for the
purpose of controlling the outputs of the
processes.
• For example a furnace produces heat as a
result of the flow of the fuel. In this process,
subsystems called fuel valves and fuel valve
actuators are used to regulate the temperature
of a room by controlling the heat output from
the furnace. Other subsystems such as
thermostats, which act as as sensors, measure
the room temperature.
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7 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.1
Simplified
description of a
control system

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8 Chapter 1: Introduction

Advantages of Control Systems

• With control systems we can move large
equipmentwith precision that would otherwise be
impossible.We can point huge antennas towards
the further reaches of the universe to pick up faint
radio signals; controlling these antennas by hand
would be possible. Because of control systems,
elevators carry us quickly the our destinatio,
automatically stoping at the right floor (in Figure
1.2). We alone could not provide the power
required for the load and the speed; motors
provide the power and control systemsregulate the
position and speed.
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 9 Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 1.2 Photos courtesy of United
Technologies Otis Elevator.
Elevators
a. Early elevators were
controlled by hand
ropes or an elevator
operator. Here, a rope is
cut to demonstrate the
safety brake, an
innovation in early
elevators;
b. Modern Duo-lift
elevators make their
way up the Grande
Arche in Paris, driven by
one motor, with each
car counterbalancing
the other. Today,
elevators are fully
automatic, using control
systems to regulate
position and velocity. ©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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10 Chapter 1: Introduction

We build control systems for four primary

reasons:
1. Power amplification: For example radar antenna
positioned by the low power rotation of a knob at the input,
requires a large amount of power for its output rotation. A
control system can produce the needed power
amplification, or power gain
2. Remote control Robots designed by control stystem
principles can compansate for human disabilities. Control
systems are also are usefull in remote or dangerous
location. For example, a remote-controlled robot arm can
be used to pickup material in a radioactive enviroment.
Figure 1.3 shows a robot arm designed to work in
contaminated enviroments.

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 11 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.3
Rover was built to
work in
contaminated
areas at Three Mile
Island in Middleton,
PA, where a nuclear
accident occurred in
1979. The remote
controlled robot’s
long arm can be
seen at the front of
the vehicle.
Photo © Hank Morgan/Rainbow/PNI.

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12 Chapter 1: Introduction
3. Convenience of input form Control systems can also be used to
provide convenience by changing the form of the input. For example,
in a temperature control systems, the input is a position on a
thermostat. The output is heat. Thus, a convenient position input yields
a desired thermal output.
4. Compensation for disturbances Typically, we control such
variables as temperature in thermal systems, position and velocity in
mechanical systems nd voltage, current, or frequency in electrical
systems. The system must be able to yield the correct output even with
a disturbance. For example, consider an antenna systems that points in
a commanded direction. If a wind forces the antenna from its
commanded position, or if noise enters internally, the system must be
able to detect the disturbance and correct the antenna’s position.
Obviously, the system’s input will not change to make the correction.
Consequently, the system itself must
a) Measure the amount that the disturbance has repositioned the
antenna
b) Return the antenna to the position commanded by the input.

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 13 Chapter 1: Introduction

History of Control Systems

• Ancient Greece (circa 3000 BC): water clocks,
automatic oil lamps;
• ‘special effects’ in temples.
• 17th Century: Cornelis Drebbel —temperature
control for an egg
• incubator
• 18th Century: James Watt — Fly ball governor for
steam engine
• Late 19th Century to mid-20th Century —
development of “classical
• control theory”
• 1960’s – present “modern control theory”
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14 Chapter 1: Introduction

History cont.
• Late 19th Century: Fathers of Stability Theory —J.
C. Maxwell,
• E. J. Routh and A. M. Lyapunov
• Late 1920’s – mid 1930’s: Bell Telephone Labs
USA. Discovery of
• negative feedback (Black), frequency response
analysis (H. W. Bode),
• stability theory (H. Nyquist).
• 1948 invention of the Root Locus method (W. R.
Evans)
• 1960’s development of state-space methods (Kalman
and others)
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15 Chapter 1: Introduction

A History of Control Systems

Feedback control systems are older than humanity. Numerous biological
control systems were built into the earliest inhabitants of our planet.
Lets now look at a brief history of control systems
• Liquid-Level Control
- 300 B.C: The Greek engineer Ktesibios built a water clock. It operated
by having a power trickle into a measuring container could be used to
tell time. For water to trickle at a constant rate, the supply tank had to
bekept at a constant level. This was accomplished using a float valve
similar to the water level control in today’s flush toilets.
- Soon after Ktesbios, the idea of liquid-level control was applied to an
oil lamp by Philon of Byzantium.
• Steam Pressure and Temperature Controls
• Speed Control
• Stability, Stabilization, and Steering
• Twentieth-Century Developments

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History_Seta
• Control theory started to develop in the 1800's with the use
of differential equations to analyze feedback loops.
Maxwell developed a characteristic equation which helped
to firmly establish control theory.
The usefulness of negative feedback in control systems
was discovered in the early 1900's when it was used to
decrease noise in repeater amplifiers along telephone lines.
In the 1960's, computers were rapidly developing and
microprocessors were eventually developed, having a
major impact on automatic controls. These are used today
to solve complex matrices of control problems and to
implement these processes in discrete time.

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History_Seta2
• In 1957, Russia launched the first
satellite. This was accomplished using
the idea of nonlinear control theory. This
event sparked US interest in the subject
and many major developments in this
field were made soon after.
Nonlinear control theory is the basis
of many control systems in things such as
aircraft controls, spacecraft, robotics,
missile guidance systems. Nonlinear
systems are required for these
applications because they are required to
have more agile movement and need to
be able to analyze more than one input at
a time. ©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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18 Chapter 1: Introduction

History_Seta3
• Modern control theory is based more on the
analysis of vectors since many control systems
take in more than one input and control more than
one output. Most equations are in the form:

dx/dt = Ax + Bu
and
y = Cx

where x(t) is a vector of internal variables, u(t) is a

vector of inputs, and y(t) is a vector of measured
outputs.
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19 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.4
a. Video laser disc
(a)
player;
b. objective lens
reading pits on a
laser disc; (b)
c. optical path for
playback showing
tracking mirror rotated
by a control system to
keep the laser beam
positioned on the pits.
(c)

(c) Pioneer Electronics, Inc.

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20 Chapter 1: Introduction
Control System Engineer
• Control system engineering is an exciting field in which to
applyyour engineerings talents, because it cuts
acrossnumerous disiplines and numerous functions within
these principles. For example if you are working on a
biological systems, you will need to interact with
colleagues in the biological sciences, mechanical
engineering, electrical enginnering, and computer
enginnering, not to mention mathematics and physics. You
will be working with these engineers at all levels of project
development from concept through design and, finally,
testing. At the design level , the control system engineer
can be performing hardware selection, design, and
interface, including total subsystem design to meet
specified requirements. The control engineer can be
working with sensors and motors, as well as electrnic,
pneumatic, and hydrolic circuits.
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 21 Chapter 1: Introduction
Response Characteristics and System Configurations
• Input and Output: A control system has an input, a process and
a output
• Open-Loop Systems: Open loop system do not monitor or
correct the output for disturbances. However, they are simpler
and less expensive than closed loop systems.
• Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems: Closed-loop
systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error
is detected, the system corrects the output and hence corrects the
effects of disturbances.
• Computer Controlled Systems: In many modern system,
controller (or compansator) is a digital computer. The advantage
of using a computer is that many loops can be controlled by the
same computer through time sharing. Furthermore, any
adjustment of the controller parameters required to yield a desired
response can be made changes in software rather than hardware.

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22 Chapter 1: Introduction
Input-output
For example, when the fourth-floor button of an elevator is
pushed on the ground floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor
with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy designed for passenger
comfort. In Figure 1.5 shows the input and output for the
elevator system. The push of the fourth-floor button is the input
and is represented by a step command. The input represents
what we would like the output to be after the levator has
stopped: the elevator itself follows the displacement described
by the curve marked elevator response. The elevator rises the
ground floor to fourth floor. We call this part of the response the
transient response. After transient response, a physical system
approaches its steady-state response, which is its
approximationto the commanded or desired response. For the
elevator example, this response accurs when the elevator’s
leveling with the floor is a second factor that could make the
output different from the input. We call this differance, steady-
state error.
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23 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure1.5
Elevator input
and output

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24 Chapter 1: Introduction

Open-Loop Systems
• A generic open-loop system shown in Figure 1.6(a). It
consists af a subsystem called input transducer that
converts to the form of the input to that used by the
controller. The controller drives a process or plant. The
input is sometimes called the reference, while the output
can be called controlled variable. Other signals, such as
disturbance, are shown added to the controller and process
outputs. For example, the palnt can be a furnace or air
conditioning system, where the output variable is
temperature. The controller in aheating system consists of
a fuel valves and electrical system that operates the valves.
• The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop system is
that it cannot compansate for any disturbances that add to
the controller’s driving signal

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25 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.6 Block diagrams of control systems:

a. open-loop system; b. closed-loop system
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26 Chapter 1: Introduction
Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems
• The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to
disturbances and inability to correct for these disturbances, may be
overcome in closed-loop sytems. The generic architecture of a closed
loop system is shown in Figure 1.6(b). The input transducer converts
the form of the input to the form used by the controller. An output
transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into
the form used by the controller. For example, if the controller uses
electrical signals to operate the valves of a temperature control system,
the input position and the output temperature are converted to the
electrical signals. The input position cancan be converted to a voltage
by a potantiometer, a variable resistor, and the output temperature can
be converted to a voltage by a thermistor, a device whose electrical
resistance changes with temperature. The first summing junction
algebrically adds the signal from the input to the signal from the
output, which arrives via the feedback path, the return path from the
output to the summing junction. The output signal is subtracted from
the input signal. The result is called actuating signal. However, in
systems where both the input and output transducers have unity gain,
the actuating signal is called the error.
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27 Chapter 1: Introduction

Closed-loop Control systems cont.

• The closed loop systems compansates for disturbances by
measuring the output response feeding that measurement back
through a feedback path, and comparing that response to the
input at the summing junction. If there is any difference between
two responses, the system drives to plant, via the actuating
signal, to make a correction. If there is no difference, the system
does not drive the plant, since the plant’s response is already
desired response. Closed loop systems have the obvious
advantage of graeter accuracy than open loop systems. They are
less sensitive to noise, disturbances, and changes in the
enviroment. Transient response and steady-state error can be
controlled more conveniently and with greater flexibility in
closed-loop systems, often by a simple adjustment of gain in the
loop, and sometime redesigning the controller. On the other
hand, the closded-loop systems more complex and expensive
than open-loop systems.
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28 Chapter 1: Introduction

Analysis and Design Objectives

• Transient Response
• Steady-State Response
• Stability
• Other Consideration
The control systems analysis and design
focuses on 3 primery objects
1. Producing the desired transient response
2. Reducing steady-state errors
3. Achieving the stability
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29 Chapter 1: Introduction

A system must be stable in order to produce

the proper transient and steady-state
response. Transient response is important
because it affects the speed of the system
and influence human patience and comfort,
not to mention mechanical stress. Steady-
state response determines the accuracy of
the control system; it governs how closely
the output matches the desired response.

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30 Chapter 1: Introduction

Transient Response
• Transien response is important. In the case of
elevator, a slow transient response makes
passangers impatient, wheras an excessively rapid
response makes them uncomfortable. If the
elevator oscillates about the floor for more than a
second, a disconserting feeling can result.
• In a computer, transient response contributes to
the time required to read from or write to the
computer disk storage. Since reading and writing
cannot take place until the head stops, the speed of
read/write head’s movement from one track on the
disk to another influences the overall speed of
computer.
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 31 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.7
Computer hard
disk drive,
showing disks
and read/write
head

Courtesy of Quantum Corp.

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32 Chapter 1: Introduction
Steady-State Response
• Steady-state response resembles the input andis
usually what remains after the transients have
decayed to zero. For example, this response may
be an elevator stopped near the fourth floor, or the
head of disk drive finally stopped at the correct
track. We are concerned about the accuracy of the
steady-state response. An elevator must be level
enough with the floor for the passanger exit, and a
read/write head not positioned over the
commanded track results in computer errors.

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33 Chapter 1: Introduction
Stability
• Discussion on transient response and steady-state error is
moot id the system does not have stability. In order to
explain stability, we start from the fact that total response
of a system is the sum of the natural response and forced
response. For the control system to be useful, the natural
response must evantually approach zero, thus leaving only
the forced response, or oscillate. In some systems,
however, the natural response grows without bound rather
than dimishing to zero or oscillating. Evantually, the
natural response is so much greater than the forced
response that the system is no longer controlled. This
condition, called instability,could the lead to self-
destructionof the physical device if limit stops are not part
of the design.

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34 Chapter 1: Introduction
Stability; cont
• For example, the elevator would crash through the
floor or exit through the ceiling; an aircraft would
go into an uncontrollable roll; or an antenna
commandedto point a target would rotate, line up
with the target, but then begin the oscillate about
the target with growing oscillations and increasing
velocity until the motor or amplifiers reached their
output limits or until the antenna was demaged
structurally.
• Control systems must be designed to be stable.
That is, their natural response must decay to zero
as time approaches infinity, or oscillate.

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35 Chapter 1: Introduction

Other Considerations

• Hardware selection: motor sizing to fillful

power requirements and coice of sensor for
accuracy
• Economic impact
• Robust design: System wouln’t to sensitive
to system parameters

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36 Chapter 1: Introduction

Case Study

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37 Chapter 1: Introduction
• Block Schematic Diagram
• A block schematic diagram of the system is shown Figure 1.9.
• The system normally operates to drive the error to zero.
• When the input = the output there is no actuating signal, the motor is not driven.
• The motor is only driven when the input ≠ the output.
• The bigger the error the faster the motor.
• Transient Performance
• What happens if the gain of the signal amplifier is increased?
• The motor is driven harder, but the actuating signal is still zero when input =
• output. The difference will be in transients — motor driven harder so will move
• faster. The increased speed leads to increased momentum so the system may over-shoot
• the final value and be forced by the system to reverse its direction. The result
• may be a diminishing oscillation. (Figure 1.10)
• Steady-state error
• In Figure 1.10 there is no steady-state error. In some systems there is, and the increase
• in gain will tend to reduce its value. This leads to a trade-off between transient
• performance and steady-state error. To combat this extra components may need to
• be added to the system to allow both the gain and the transients to be adjusted. This
• is called compensation.

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38 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.8
The search for
extraterrestrial life is
being carried out with
radio antennas like
the one pictured here.
A radio antenna is an
example of a system
with position controls.

© Peter Menzel.

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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 39 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.9
Antenna
azimuth position
control system:
a. system
concept;
b. detailed
layout;
c. schematic;
d. functional
block diagram

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 40 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.10
Response of a
position control
system showing
effect of high
and low
controller gain
on the output
response
©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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41 Chapter 1: Introduction

The control system design process

• Step 1: Transform requierements into a Physical System
• Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram
• Step 3: Create a Schematic
• Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)
Kirchoff’ law (current, voltage): The sum of voltages
(currents) a closed path (flowing from a node) equals zero
Newton’s law: The sum of forces (moments) on a body
equals zero
• Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram
• Step 6: Analze and Design

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42 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.11
The control
system design
process

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43 Chapter 1: Introduction
Determine a Physical System from the Requirements
Azimuth Position Control System
Example
• able to position antenna azimuth angle
from a remote location
• weight of antenna
• physical dimensions
• desired transient performance
• desired steady-state accuracy
• etc.
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44 Chapter 1: Introduction

• Functional Description
• It is sometimes useful to develop a functional
diagram of the system which
• will help to define the required hardware. Here is a
block-schematic
• diagram of the azimuth position control system.

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45 Chapter 1: Introduction

Transform the Physical System into a Schematic

• Makes relationships more concrete
• Enables decisions to be made about what can be
neglected in
• formulating the mathematical model.
• Assumptions made can be easily reviewed and
schematic and/or model
• adjusted as necessary.
• Should be kept as simple as possible:
• – Checked by analysis and simulation
• – Phenomena added if results do not agree with
observed behavior.
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46 Chapter 1: Introduction

Some simplifying assumptions

• Neglect friction and inertia of potentiometers (no
dynamics).
• Neglect dynamics of signal amplifiers whose
responses will be rapid
• compared to the motor. Assume pure gain K.
• Armature voltage controlled motor — assume
inductance is negligible.
• Load can be modeled as an inertia plus bearing
resistance.
• There are no losses in the gearbox.

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 47 Chapter 1: Introduction

Mathematical Models for the Schematic

• Use of basic physical laws.
• Construction of circuit diagrams and mechanical mobility
diagrams.
• Differential equations.
• Block diagrams with transfer functions.

Alternative Mathematical Models for the Schematic

• State-space models could be used.
• For these nth order differential equations are converted
into n first-order
• differential equations which are themselves represented by
matrices.

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Analysis and Design

• Performance characteristics such as

• stability
• steady-state accuracy, and
• transient performance
• are determined.

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Figure 1.12
Equivalent
block diagram
for the antenna
azimuth
position control
system

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 50 Chapter 1: Introduction

Use of simple test inputs.

• Impulse, sinusoid, step, ramp and parabolic inputs are used to excite
the
• system in order to determine the actual response of the system.
• Impulse is used to inject energy into the system so that its natural
• response may be obtained. This can be used to determine what the
• transfer function of an unknown system is.
• Sinusoid is used to determine the steady-state and transient behavior
• from frequency response measurements. It can also be used to
• determine the transfer function of an unknown system.
• Step is used to analyze steady-state and transient performance
• Ramp and Parabolic inputs are used to determine steady-state
• accuracy..

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Table 1.1
Test
waveforms
used in
control
systems

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Choosing Components
• The choice of components to be assembled into a
control system depends
• on factors such as speed and power.
• The system must be analyzed to see if the
requirements can be met.
• If the requirements cannot be met then the
designer may need to design
• additional components or make adjustments to the
system’s parameters in
• order to meet the requirements.
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53 Chapter 1: Introduction

Other Considerations
• Sensitivity analysis may need to be performed in
order to determine
• how changes in system parameters will affect the
performance of the
• system. Systems must be built to withstand small
changes in
• parameters due to causes such as temperature,
pressure, etc.
• Once the design is complete, time response
analysis may need to be
• done again to verify that the control system meets
all the requirements.
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54 Chapter 1: Introduction

Fundamentals of Automatic Control

• Introduction.
• Modeling in the frequency domain.
• Modeling in the time domain.
• Time response.
• Block diagrams and reduction of multiple subsystems.
• Stability
• Steady-state errors.
• Root-Locus techniques
• Design via root-locus
• Design via state space
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