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INTRODUCTION
1.1 HISTORY:
Ethylene Glycol (1, 2 – ethanediol), HOCH2CH2OH usually called glycol is the
simplest Diol. Diethylene glycol and Triethylene glycol are Oligomers of Mono
ethylene glycol.
Ethylene glycol was first prepared by Wurtz in 1859; treatment of 1,2 dibromoethane
with silver acetate yielding ethylene glycol diacetate via saponification with
potassium hydroxide and in 1860 from the hydration of ethylene oxide. There to have
been no commercial manufacture or application of ethylene glycol prior to World
War-I when it was synthesized from ethylene dichloride in Germany and used as
substituted for glycerol in the explosives industry and was first used industrially in
place of glycerol during World War I as an intermediate for explosives (ethylene
glycol dinitrate) but has since developed into a major industrial product.
The use of ethylene glycol as an antifreeze for water in automobile cooling systems
was patented in the United States in 1917, but this commercial application did not
start until the late 1920s. The first inhibited glycol antifreeze was put on the market in
1930 by National Carbon Co. (Now Union Carbide Corp.) under the brand name
“prestone”.
Carbide continued to be essentially the sole supplier until the late 1930s. In 1940
DuPont started up an ethylene glycol plant in Belle, West Virginia based on its new
formaldehyde methanol process. In 1937 Carbide started up the first plant based on
Lefort’s process for vapor phase oxidation of ethylene oxide.
The worldwide capacity for production of Ethylene Glycol via hydrolysis of ethylene
oxide is estimated to be 7×106 ton/annum [1, 2].
1.2 CHEMISTRY:
Compound contains more than one –oly group is called Polyhydric Alcohol (Dihydric
alcohol) or polyols (Diols). Diols are commonly known as Glycols, since they have a
sweet taste (Greek, glycys= Sweet).
1
Dihydric alcohols because compounds contain two –OH groups on one carbon are
seldom encountered. This is because they are unstable and undergo spontaneous
decomposition to give corresponding carbonyl compound and water.
Figure-1[10]
According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, IUPAC name of glycol is obtained by
adding suffix Diol to the name of parent alkanes.
HO OH H H H H
H--C---C--H HO--C---C--OH H--C---C--H
H H H H HO OH
1, 2 Glycol 1, 3 Glycol 1, 4 Glycol
(α- Glycol) (β- Glycol) (γ- Glycol)
Glycols are Diols. Compounds containing two hydroxyl groups attached to separate
carbon in an aliphatic chain. Although glycols may contain heteroatom can be
represented by the general formula C2nH4nOn-1(OH) 2. [3, 4]
Formula Common name IUPAC name
CH2OHCH2OH Ethylene Glycol Ethane-1, 2-Diol
1.3 USES:
The following is a summary of the major uses of ethylene glycol:
1.3.1 Antifreeze
A major use of ethylene glycol is as antifreeze for internal combustion
engines. Solutions containing ethylene glycol have excellent heat transfer properties
and higher boiling points than pure water. Accordingly, there is an increasing
2
tendency to use glycol solutions as a year-round coolant. Ethylene glycol solutions are
also used as industrial heat transfer agents.
Mixtures of ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are used for defrosting and
de-icing aircraft and preventing the formation of frost and ice on wings and fuselages
of aircraft while on the ground. Ethylene glycol-based formulations are also used to
de-ice airport runways and taxiways as de-icing agent.
Asphalt-emulsion paints are protected by the addition of ethylene glycol
against freezing, which would break the emulsion. Carbon dioxide pressurized fire
extinguishers and sprinkler systems often contain ethylene glycol to prevent freezing.
1.3.2 Explosives
The use of ethylene glycol for fibers is becoming the most important consumer
of glycol worldwide. These fibers, marketed commercially under various trade names
like Dacron, Fortel, Kodel, Terylene etc are made by the polymerization of ethylene
glycol with BisHydroxyEthyl Terephthalate (BHET).
These Polyester fibers are used for recyclable bottles.
1.3.4 Resins
Polyester resins made from maleic and phthalic anhydrides, ethylene glycol,
and vinyl-type monomers have important applications in the low-pressure
lamination of glass fibers, asbestos, cloth and paper.
Polyester-fiberglass laminates are used in the manufacture of furniture,
automobile bodies, boat hulls, suitcases and aircraft parts. Alkyd-type resins are
produced by the reaction of ethylene glycol with a dibasic acid such as o-phthalic,
maleic or fumaric acid. These resins are used to modify synthetic rubbers, in
adhesives, and for other applications.
Alkyds made from ethylene glycol and phthalic anhydride is used with similar
resins based on other polyhydric alcohols, such as glycerol or pentaerythritol in the
3
manufacture of surface coatings. Resin esters made with ethylene glycol are used as
plasticizers in adhesives, lacquers and enamels.
1.3.5 Hydraulic Fluids
Ethylene glycol is used in hydraulic, brake and shock absorber fluids to help
dissolve inhibitors, prevent swelling of rubber, and inhibit foam formation.
Hydro lubes, which are water-based mixtures of polyalkylene glycols and
presses and die casting machines, and in airplane hydraulic systems because of their
relatively low viscosity at high pressure. An added advantage of primary importance
is that these hydro lubes are inflammable.
1.3.6 Capacitors
2. Molecular weight 62
5
10. Critical volume, L/mol 0.1861
Upper 53
Lower 3.2
6
[O]
HOOC-COOH
(Oxylic acid)
[O]
HNO3 [O] [O]
HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CHO CHOCHO CHOCOOH
(Ethylene Glycol) (Glycol aldehydes) (Glyoxal) (Glyoxylic acid)
2.1.3 Other reactions
The hydroxyl groups on glycols undergo the usual alcohol chemistry giving a wide
variety of possible derivatives. Hydroxyls can be converted to aldehydes, alkyl
halides, amides, amines, azides, carboxylic acids, ethers, mercaptans, nitrate esters,
nitriles, nitrite esters, organic esters, peroxides, phosphate esters, and sulfate esters.
Reaction with sodium at 50 oC to form monoalkoxide and dialkoxide when
temperature is raised.
Na at 50 oC Na at 160 oC
HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CH2ONa NaOCH2CH2ONa
(Ethylene Glycol) (Mono Alkoxide) (Di Alkoxide)
Reaction with Phosphorus pentahalide (PCl5) it first gives Ethylene
chlorohydrins and then 1, 2 dichloroethane. PBr5 reacts in same way.
PCl5 PCl5
HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CH2Cl ClCH2CH2Cl
(Ethylene Glycol) (Ethylene chlorohydrins) (1, 2-Dicholorochlorohydrins)
With Phosphorus trihalide (PBr3) to form responding dihalide
PBr3 PBr3
HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CH2Br BrCH2CH2Br
(Ethylene Glycol) (Ethylene Bromohydrins) (1, 2-Dibromohydrins)
With HCl in two step reaction, form ethylene chlorohydrins at 160 oC and
second forms 1, 2 dichloroethane at 200oC.
160 oC 200 oC
HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CH2Cl ClCH2CH2Cl
(Ethylene Glycol) (Ethylene chlorohydrins) (1, 2-Dicholorochlorohydrins)
The largest commercial use of ethylene glycol is its reaction with dicarboxylic
acids (1) to form linear polyesters. Poly (Ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) (2) is
7
produced by esterification of teraphthalic acid to form BisHydroxyEthyl
Terephthalate (BHET) (3). BHET polymerizes in a transesterification reaction
catalyzed by antimony oxide to form PET.
2HOCH2CH2OH
+
(1) (2)
Sb2O3
H* OOC COOCH2CH2 *H
+ HOCH2CH2OH
n
(3)
Ketones and aldehydes react with ethylene glycol under acidic conditions to
Form 1, 3-dioxolanes cyclic ketals and acetals.
O
+ R'
H
HOCH2CH2OH + RCOR+ + H2O (7)
R
O
8
Ethylene glycol reacts with ethylene oxide to form di, tri, tetra and
polyethylene glycols.
Ethylene glycols is stable compound, but special care is required when
ethylene glycol is heated at a higher temperature in presence of NaOH, which is
exothermic reaction at temperature above 250 oC of evolution of H2 (-90 to -160
KJ/Kg).[1,3,4]
CHAPTER III
LITERATURE SURVEY
The literature survey has been done with an aim to obtain information concerning
Ethylene Glycol and its production from number of sources. Such information sources
include chemical abstracts, periodicals and books on chemical technology,
handbooks, encyclopedias and internet websites. The literature survey yielded a lot of
information on Ethylene Glycol. A brief review of information obtained from the
literature survey is presented hereafter.
9
During the project many Journals, Manuals and Hand book have been sited The
manufacturing process have been taken from “Chemical Engineering Journal
107(2005), 199-204.” The selectivity and other process parameters have been taken
from “Chemical Engineering Journal 107(2005), 199-204.” The demand growths,
Major producer in India & World have been taken from Internet.
10
produced via ethylene oxide hydrolysis. Significant commercial quantities are also
produced directly by the reaction of ethylene oxide with the lower glycols.
Triethylene glycol is an efficient hygroscopicity agent with low volatility, and about
45% is used as a liquid drying agent for natural gas. Its use in small packaged plants
located at the gas wellhead eliminates the need for line heaters in field gathering
systems as a solvent (11 %) Triethylene glycol is used in resin impregnants and other
additives, steam-set printing inks, aromatic and paraffinic hydrocarbon separations,
cleaning compounds, and cleaning poly (ethylene Terephthalate) production
equipment. The freezing point depression property of Triethylene glycol is the basis
for its use in heat-transfer fluids.
Nitrocellulose lacquers, vinyl and poly (vinyl chloride) resins, poly (vinyl acetate) and
synthetic rubber compounds and cellulose esters. The fatty acid derivatives of
Triethylene glycol are used as emulsifiers, emulsifiers, and lubricants. Polyesters
derived from Triethylene glycol are useful as low pressure laminates for glass fibers,
asbestos, cloth, or paper. Triethylene glycol is used in the manufacture of alkyd resins
used as laminating agents and adhesives.
11
adhesives, and is chemically modified to form Polyisocyanate, polymethacrylate, and
to contain silicone compounds used for adhesives.
12
Ethylene glycol is readily biodegradable, thus disposal of waste water containing this
compound can proceed without major problems. The high LC 50value of over 10000
mg/lit account for its low water toxicity.
CHAPTER IV
MARKET SURVEY
13
local condition, such as market situation and transport facilities. About 60% of total
world production is converted to ethylene glycol.
About 50% of the ethylene glycol that is used as antifreeze. Another 40% is used in
fiber industry. Consequently the ethylene glycol demand is closely connected to the
development of these two sectors In view of the increasing price of crude oil,
alternative production method based on synthesis gas is likely to become more
important and increasing competitive.
14
3. 2005 January 1045
4. February 1095
5. March 1095
6. April 971
7. May 734
8. June 736
9. July 808
10. August 836
11. September 883
12. October 883
13. November 1st week 830
14. 2nd week 822
15
IBP, C min 196 196
DP, C max 200 199
Odor Practically none
UV transmittance, % min at:
220 nm 70 70
250 nm 90
275 nm 90 95
350 nm 98 99
Specific gravity, 20/20C 1.1151-1.1156 1.1151-1.1156
Water solubility, 25C Completely miscible
CHAPTER V
PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
16
other glycols and polyols produced. Biomass continues to be evaluated as a feedstock
for glycol production.
O O O
Ethylene Oxide H H
Ethylene Glycol
H2C CH2 + H2C CH2 H2C CH2 O CH2 CH2
O O O O O
H H H H
Diethylene Glycol
O O O
H H
H2C CH2 O CH2 CH2 O CH2 CH2
O O
H H
Triethylene Glycol
Ethylene oxide hydrolysis proceeds with either acid or base catalysis or uncatalyzed
in neutral medium. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis activates the ethylene oxide by
protonation for the reaction with water. Base-catalyzed hydrolysis results in
considerably lower selectivity to ethylene glycol. The yield of higher glycol products
is substantially increased since anions of the first reaction products effectively
compete with hydroxide ion for ethylene oxide. Neutral hydrolysis (pH 6-10),
conducted in the presence of a large excess of water at high temperatures and
pressures, increases the selectivity of ethylene glycol to 89-91%. In all these ethylene
17
oxide hydrolysis processes the principal byproduct is Diethylene glycol. The higher
glycols, i.e., Triethylene and Triethylene glycols, account for the remainder.
18
+ H+
CO CH2O + H2O HOOCCH2OH + NaCl (12)
Coal was the original feedstock for syngas at Belle; thus ethylene glycol was
commercially manufactured from coal at one time. Ethylene glycol manufacture from
syngas continues to be pursued by a number of researchers.
Ethylene glycol can be produced from acetoxylation of ethylene. Acetic acid,
oxygen, and ethylene react with a catalyst to form the glycol mono and diacetate.
Catalysts can be based on palladium, selenium, tellurium, or thallium. The esters are
hydrolyzed to ethylene glycol and acetic acid. The net reaction is ethylene plus water
plus oxygen to give ethylene glycol. This technology has several issues which have
limited its commercial use.
Te2Br2
CH3COOH + CH2 CH2 + O2 CH3COOCH2OOCCH3 (15)
3 H2O
CH3COOCH2CH2OH + CH3COOCH2CH2OOCCH3 2 HOCH2CH2OH + 3 CH3COOH (16)
The catalysts and acetic are highly corrosive, requiring expensive construction
materials. Trace amounts of ethylene glycol mono-and diacetates are difficult to
separate from ethylene glycol limiting the glycol’s value for polyester manufacturing.
This technology (Halcon license) was practiced by Oxirane in 1978 and j1979 but was
discontinued due to corrosion problems.
Ethylene glycol can be manufactured by the transesterification of ethylene
carbonate. A process based on the reaction of ethylene carbonate with methanol to
give dimethyl carbonate and ethylene glycol is described in a Texaco patent; a general
description of the chemistry has also been published.
Zr2Cl4
C + 2 CH3OH HOCH2CH2OH + CO(CH3O)2 (18)
O O
Selectivity to ethylene glycol are excellent with little Diethylene glycol or higher
19
glycols produced. A wide range of catalysts may be employed including ion exchange
resins, zirconium and titanium compounds, tin compounds, phosphines, acids and
bases. The process produces a large quantity of dimethyl carbonate which would
require a commercial outlet.
Oxalic acid produced from syngas can be esterified and reduced with
hydrogen to form ethylene glycol with recovery of the esterification alcohol.
Hydrogenation requires a copper catalyst giving 100% conversion with selectivity to
ethylene glycol of 95%.
The Teijin process, which has not been commercialized to date, produces
ethylene glycol by the reaction of ethylene with thallium salts in the presence of water
and chloride or bromide ions. The major by-product in the reaction is acetaldehyde.
A redox metal compound (such as copper) oxidizable with molecular oxygen is added
to the reaction medium to permit the regeneration of the thallium salt.
The DuPont process, based on feeds derived from synthesis gas (CO and
formaldehyde), became economically obsolete because of low-priced ethylene. With
the high price of oil and natural gas, there has been increasing interest in coal
gasification to produce fuel and also synthesis gas for petrochemical manufacture. In
1976, Union Carbide announced that a process for the production of ethylene glycol
from synthesis gas was being developed for commercialization in the early 1980.The
proposed reaction was based on using a rhodium-based catalyst in tetrahydrofuran
solvent at 190-230C and high pressure (3400 atm). The equi molar mixture of CO
and H2 would be converted mainly to ethylene glycol and by-product glycerol and
propylene oxide. Methanol, methyl formate, and water would also be produced.[10]
20
Hydration of ethylene oxide is an industrial approach to glycols in general, and
ethylene glycol in particular. Ethylene glycol is one of the major large-scale products
of industrial organic synthesis, with the world annual production of about 15.3
million t/yr in 2000. Hydration of ethylene oxide proceeds on a serial-to-parallel route
with the formation of homologues of glycol:
21
from ethylene Selectivity: 95% or ammonium selectivity
carbonate Temp:180oC salt. Utility saving
Pressure:13bar Extra purification
cost
5. Transesterificati Low yield Zirconium & Produced large
on of ethylene titanium amount of
carbonate. compound. byproducts
22
Now all ethylene and propylene glycols is produced in industry by a non catalyzed
reaction. Product distribution in reaction (1) is regulated by the oxide/water ratio in
the initial reaction mixture. The distribution factor b = k1/k0 for a non catalyzed
reaction of ethylene oxide with water is in the range of 1.9–2.8. For this reason large
excess of water (up to 20 molar equiv.) is applied to increase the monoglycol yield on
the industrial scale. This results in a considerable power cost at the final product
isolation stage from dilute aqueous solutions. i.e. energy consumption for the
distillation of large amount of excess water is high. Also the selectivity of ethylene
oxide hydrolysis is low i.e. 10% is converted to Diethylene glycol and tri ethylene
glycol.
One of the ways of increasing the monoglycol selectivity and, therefore, of decreasing
water excess is the application of catalysts accelerating only the first step of the
reaction (1). There are much research has been carried out to improve this process.
The search for better catalyst is an objective for increase the selectivity and decrease
the excess water. As evident from the kinetic data the distribution factor b = k1/k0 is
reduced -0.1–0.2 at the concentration of some salts of about 0.5 mol/l. This enables to
produce monoethyleneglycol with high selectivity at water–ethyleneoxide molar ratio
close to 10.
5.2.2 Catalyst:
A cross-linked styrene–divinylbenzene anion exchange resin (SBR) in the HCO 3−/
CO3- form, activated by anion exchanging with sodium bicarbonate solution used as
catalysts. (Dow Chemical produced anion-exchange resins: DOWEX SBR). The
ethylene oxide hydration process in a catalytic fixed-bed tube reactor was studied .The
properties of initial resins are summarized below:
Functional group : - [PhN (CH3)3] +
Total exchange capacity (equiv./l) : 1.4
Particle size (mm) : 0.3-1.2
23
5.3.1 MEG reaction unit:
Ethylene oxides mixed with recycle water and pumped to glycol reactor where it is
reacted with water at 1050C &1.5 MPa in the presence of catalyst. The Reactor is
Catalytic Plug flow Fixed bed type. The reaction volume consists of two phase, the
liquid phase and ionite (catalyst) phase. The liquid streams through catalyst bed in a
plug flow regime. The catalytic and non catalytic ethylene oxide hydration takes place
in the ionite phase, and only non catalytic reaction takes place in the liquid phase. The
distribution of the components of the reaction mixture between liquid and ionite
phases is result of the rapid equilibrium. The glycol reactor operate at approximately
1.5MPa.pressure which is supplied by the reactor feed pump. The reactor effluent
goes to the evaporation unit for the evaporation of excess water.
5.3.2 MEG evaporation unit:
The glycol evaporation system consists of multiple effect evaporation system(three
effects). The reactor effluent flows by difference in pressure from one evaporator to
the next the water content of glycol is reduced to about 15% in the evaporators. The
remaining water is removed in drying column, the pressure of the system is such that
the reactor effluent is maintained as a liquid and is fed as such in to the vapor portion
of the first effect evaporator.
Evaporation in the first effect is accomplished by 12Kg/cm 2 (g) pressure steam. The
overhead vapor from the first effect is used as heating media in the second effect. The
steam condensate from the first effect is goes to the medium pressure condensate
header.
The overhead vapor from the second effect is used as heating media in the third effect.
The third effect operated under vacuum. The vacuum is maintained by using steam jet
ejector. The bottom of the third effect containing 15% water is fed to crude glycol
tank via glycol pump, which is then fed to the drying unit. The condensate from first
two effects and the vapor from third effect containing water and some amount of
glycol are fed to the glycol recovery unit.
5.3.3 MEG drying unit:
The concentrated glycol from the third effect is containing approximately 15% water.
Essentially all the water is removed from the aqueous ethylene glycol solution in the
drying column. Normally the drying column is fed from the crude glycol tank. The
drying column operated under vacuum which is maintained by steam jet ejector.
Drying column bottom which are free from water are transferred by column bottom
24
pump to MEG refining column. Where the MEG is separated from the higher glycol,
Water vapors leaving the top of the drying column are fed to MEG recovery unit for
glycol recovery. (An inert gas line is provided at the base of the drying column for
breaking the vacuum).
5.3.4 MEG refining unit:
Drying column bottoms essentially free of water are fed to the MEG refining column.
(PACKED COLUMN). About 15% of the feed to the MEG column enters as vapor
due to flashing. MEG product is withdrawn from the top of the column. Some MEG is
purged in the overhead to the vacuum jets to reduce the aldehydes in the product. The
MEG column bottoms primarily di-ethylene glycols are pumped from the column
bottom to the storage tank. The MEG column operates at a pressure of 10mmHg (A).
The vacuum is maintained by MEG column ejector system. The MEG column
condenser is mounted directly on the top of the MEG column.
5.3.5 MEG recovery unit:
The MEG leaving along with water from the Top of the multiple effect evaporator &
drying column are recovered in the MEG Recovery Column (PLATE COLUMN).
The column is operated under Atmospheric pressure.MEG leaving from the bottom of
the column and the water leaving from the top of the column are Recycle to reactor.
25
CHAPTER VI
MATERIAL BALANCE
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over
complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products
produced. Balances over Individual process until set the process stream flows and
compositions. The general conservation equation for any process can be written as
Material out = material in + accumulation
For a steady state process the accumulation term is zero. If a chemical reaction is
taking place a particular chemical species may be formed or consumed. But if there is
no chemical reaction, the steady state balance reduces to:
Material out = Material in
A balance equation can be written for each separately identifiable species present,
elements, compounds and for total material. [10]
6.1 BASIS:
Basis: 100000TPA
The process is planned and developed as a continuous process. A plant is operated for
24 Hours per day and 333 per year.
No of working days = 333days
1000000
Capacity =
333
= 300.3 T/days
= 201.47 Kmol/hr.
26
6.3 MATERIAL BALANCE OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT:
This is the amount of MEG obtained from the distillation column,
So assuming that 99% of MEG in the feed to the Distillation column (Refining
Column) is obtained in the distillate & also 93% of MEG in feed to the Recovery
Column is recovered from Recovery Column.
Kmol of MEG in feed to the distillation column
= 204.70 Kmol/hr.
6.3.1 Reactor:
As selectivity = 98%
204.70
Moles of undesired product formed =
98
= 2.088 Kmol
Moles of MEG to be produced from reactor = 206.788kmol
Moles of ethylene oxide reacted by reaction –I
= 206.788 Kmol.
27
= 2.088 Kmol.
Total Moles of ethylene oxide reacted = 206.788 + 2.088
= 208.876 Kmol.
As conversion = 100%
[6]
Moles of ethylene oxide charged = 208.876kmol
From the literature we know that the ratio of WATER TO ETHYLENE OXIDE =10
Amount of water fed to reactor = 2088.76 Kmol. (Including excess)
From the reaction moles of water reacted = 206.788 Kmol.
M.B.ON WATER:
Moles of water fed = Moles of water reacted + Moles of water unreacted
2088.76 = 206.788 + Moles of water unreacted
Moles of water unreacted = 1881.972kmol
M.B.ON MEG:
Moles of MEG in the product = 206.788 – 2.088
= 204.7 Kmol
Table 6.1 Material balance over reactor
Component In, Kg Out, kg
Ethylene oxide 9190.54 -
Water 37597.68 33875.496
Mono Ethylene Glycol - 12691.4
Higher Glycol - 221.328
28
Remaining 15% water are still in the bottom along with the MEG and Higher glycol.
W1= 8285.66kg
MEG = 165.58kg
H2O = 8120.08kg
F = 2088.76 Kmol
= (46788.224 kg)
1st effect evaporator
M.E.G = 204.7Kmol To 2nd effect evaporator
= 12691.4 Kg
Pressure = 7 kg/cm2
Water =1881.972 Kmol
= 33875.496Kg Temp = 159 oC
Amount of glycol carry over along with water from IIst effect = 189.139kg
W2= 9689.31kg
MEG = 189.139kg
H2O = 9500.171kg
Temp = 141 oC
Pressure = 3.5 kg/cm2
From 2nd effect To 3rd effect evaporator
evaporator 2nd effect evaporator
Amount of glycol carry over along with water from IIst effect = 335.064 kg
29
W3= 11508.96kg
MEG = 335.064kg
H2O = 11173.89kg
To MEG Refining
rd
From 3 effect column
evaporator 3rd effect evaporator X = 477.9588
Kmol
HG = 2.088 Kmol
= 221.328kg
31
Amount of feed to MEG Recovery column
= (Amount of MEG leaving along with
water during evaporation + Amount of
water removed)
= 18.4813+1881.973
= 1900.451 Kmol.
Table 6.3 Material balance over drying column
Component In, Kg Out, Kg
Liquid phase Vapor phase
Water 5081.324 - 5081.324
MEG 12001.606 11545.3545 456.061
HG 221.328 221.328 -
D= 184.54 Kmol
= 11448.8616 kg
MEG = 184.355kmol
(0.999.high purity)
F = 188.306 Kmol
= 11766.873 kg HG = 0.18454kmol
MEG refining column
MEG = 186.218kmol Pressure = 10 mmHg
=11545.545kg
Temp = 93.2 oC
HG =2.088kmol
= 221.328kg
W = 3.766 Kmol
= 317.664 kg
MEG = 1.8523kmol
HG = 1.9136kmol
Assuming 99% recovery, of total MEG feed to distillation column, is obtained in the
distillate.
Kmol of MEG in Distillate = 188.306 0.99 x 0.98891
= 184.355 Kmol / hr.
= 11431.0818 Kg/hr.
Kmol of Distillate (D) = 184.355 / 0.999
= 184.54 Kmol / hr.
Avg. M.W. of distillate = (0.999 x 62) + (0.001 x 106)
32
= 62.044 kg / Kmol.
Amt. of Distillate (D) = 184.54 x 62.04
= 11448.8618 kg / hr.
Amt. of HG in Distillate = 184.54 x 0.001
= 0.18454 Kmol / hr.
= 0.18454 x 106
= 19.561 kg / hr.
Kmol of feed (F) = 188.306 Kmol / hr.
= 11766.873 kg/hr
TAKING OVER ALL M.B.
F=D+W
188.306 = 184.54 + W
W = 3.766 Kmol /hr.
M.B. ON MEG
F x (Xf MEG) = D x (Xd MEG) + W x (Xb MEG)
188.306 x 0.9889 = 184.54 x 0.999 + 3.766 x Xb MEG
Xb MEG = 0.4918 (mol.fr.of MEG in Bottoms)
XbHG = (1- 0.4918)
= 0.5081 (mol.fr.of HG in Bottoms)
Kmol of MEG in Bottoms = 0.4918 x 3.766
= 1.8521 Kmol / hr
Mol. Weight of MEG = 62 kg/Kmol
= 114.831 kg/hr.
Kmol of HG in Bottoms = 0.5081 x 3.766
= 1.9135 Kmol / hr.
Mol. Weight of HG =106 kg/Kmol
= 1.9135 x 106
= 202.83 kg/hr.
D= 1881.97kmol
= 11766.873 kg
33
MEG =1.88kmol
H2O =1880.08kmol
6.3.5 MEG recovery column (Plate column):
F = 1900.451kmol
= 35021.339 kg MEG recovery column
MEG = 18.481kmol
=1145.844kg Plate column
H2O =1881.97kmol
= 33875.496kg.
W = 18.481kmol
=1205.55 kg
MEG = 17.122kmol
H2O = 1.3584kmol
35
MEG recovery Water 33875.496 24.4512 33841.44
column
MEG 1145.844 1061.546 116.56
CHAPTER VII
ENERGY BALANCE
The first law of thermodynamics demands that energy be neither created nor
destroyed. The following is a systematic energy balance performed for each unit of
the process. The datum temperature for calculation is taken as 0C.
The different properties like specific heat, heat of reaction, heat of vaporization, etc.
are taken to be constant over the temperature range.
7.1 REACTOR: [9,11]
36
(Ethylene oxide) (Water) (Mono Ethylene Glycol)
C2H4O + HOCH2CH2OH HOCH2CH2OH ------------ (2)
(Ethylene oxide) (Mono Ethylene Glycol) (Higher Glycol)
H 0 f H 0 fp H 0 f R
= [-454800] - [-(77704) + (-285830)]
= -91266 KJ/ Kmol of EO Reacted
= -91266 x 206.788
= -18.872 x 106 KJ / hr
For second reaction
H 0 f H 0 fp H 0 f R
= [-562570] – [(-77704) + (-454800)]
= -30066 KJ/ Kmol of EO Reacted
= -30066 x 2.088
= -62.77x103 KJ / hr
Enthalpy of reactants
As reactants are added at 250C, so, its Enthalpy becomes 0.
Enthalpy of products
37
H p m C p MEG m C p WATER (mCp) HG T
= [ ( 204.7 x 189.39) + ( 1881.972 x 75.673 ) + (2.088 x 441.60) ] ( 105 – 25 )
= 14.5683 x 106 KJ / hr
Enthalpy of reaction
H R0 H p H 0 f H R
= (14.5683 x 106) + (-18.9347 x 106) - 0
= - 4.3043 x 106 KJ / hr
So, it indicates that it is an exothermic reaction.
So, to control temp. Inside the reactor, cooling water is passed on shell side to remove
the heat.
Assuming cooling water entered at 25 o C and leave at 45 o C
Q = m x Cp x ∆T
- 4.3043 x 106 = m x 75.79627 x 20
m = 2.8394 x 103 Kg / hr (cooling rate) [9,11]
39
7.2.2 Second effect:
Cp avg. = xiCpi
= 4.105 KJ/Kg o K
avg = 2088.28 KJ/Kg
w11 + (wF – w1) (t1 – t2) Cp = w22
w1 X 2016.38 + (46788.224 -w1) (175.17-152.585) x 4.05 = w2 2088.28
Put value of w1 from equation (1) and finally
w2 = 0.9022WS – 4245.22 ---------------------------- (2)
7.2.3 Third effect:
Cp avg. = xiCpi
= 3.873 KJ/Kg o K
avg = 2207.35 KJ/Kg
w22 + (wF – w1-w2) ( t2 – t3) Cp = w33
w22088.28 + (46788.224 – w1 – w2) (152.585 – 106.155)3.873 = w3 2207.35
Put value of W2 from equation 2 and finally we get
w3 = 0.70WS – 697.42 ----------------------------------- (3)
Taking overall Material balances:
w1 + w2 + w3 = w1-3
0.9787WS – 6830.42 +0.9022WS – 4245.22 + 0.70WS – 697.42 = 28794.1716 +
689.783
WS = 15.445 x 103 Kg/hr ( steam rate is required.)
From above equations we calculated,
w1 = 8285.66 Kg/hr
w2 = 9689.31 Kg/hr
w3 = 11508.96 Kg/hr
Now , Enthalpy out from the bottom of the last effect,
T = 97oC.
Enthalpy out from Bottom = (mCpT )MEG + ( mCpT )WATER + ( mCpT )HG
40
= 5.828 x 106 KJ / hr
Y= 289.295 Kmol
= 5537.385 kg
MEG = 456.061kg
H2O = 5081.324 kg
F = 477.9588 kmol .
= 17304.2585 kg
MEG = 12001.606kg Drying column
H2O = 5081.324 kg.
Pressure = 0.21 kg/cm2
Temp = 87 oC
HG = 221.328kg.
X = 188.306 Kmol
= 11766.873 kg
MEG = 186.218kmol
= 115453545kg
HG = 2.088 Kmol
= 221.328kg
Toperating = 87 oC Trefrence = 25 oC
Hence T = 62oC.
= 12.529 x 106 kJ / hr
= 2.225 x 106 kJ / hr
41
= 12.529 x106 + 2.225 x 106
= 14.75 x106 kJ / hr
= 8.926 x 106 kJ / hr
Steam = 2205.82 kJ / kg
Q = m λsteam
D= 184.54 Kmol
7.4 MEG REFINING COLUMN: = 11448.8616 kg
MEG = 184.355kmol
(0.999.high purity)
HG = 0.18454kmol
F = 188.306 Kmol
= 11766.873 kg MEG refining column
Pressure = 10 mmHg
MEG = 186.218kmol
=11545.545kg Temp = 93.2 oC
HG =2.088kmol
= 221.328kg
W = 3.766 Kmol
= 317.664 kg
MEG = 1.8523kmol
T = 66.8 oC
42
Poperating = 10 mmHg
QD = 2.341 x 106 kJ / hr
L = 0.71D
= 0.71D + D
= 0.71 x 184.355
V = 315.247 kmol / hr
Reflux L = 0.71D
= 0.71 x 184.355
L = 130.89 kmol / hr
= m + (mCpT)
= 25.58 x 106 kJ / hr
43
QReflux = ( mCpT )Reflux
= 1.6485 x106 kJ / hr
Condenser load, QC :
= QV – ( QReflux + QD )
= 21.595 x 106 kJ / hr
Assuming cooling water enters the condenser at 25oC & leave at 45oC
= 83.34 x 106 kJ / hr
Reboiler Load:
QB + QFeed = QD + QW + QC
= 21.794 x 106 kJ / hr
44
Consider the steam enter at 2 kg/cm2 & 118.719oC
steam = 2205.82 kJ / kg
QB = mλ steam
MEG = 184.355kmol
(0.999.high purity)
HG =2.088kmol
= 221.328kg
W = 3.766 Kmol
= 317.664 kg
MEG = 1.8523kmol
T = 169 oC
QD = 24.40 x 106 kJ / hr
45
L = 0.51D
= 0.51D + D
= 0.51 x 1881.97
V = 2841.77kmol / hr
Reflux L = 0.71D
= 0.51 x 1881.97
L = 959.80 kmol / hr
= m + (mCpT)
= 208.95 106 kJ / hr
= 12.43 x106 kJ / hr
Condenser load
QC = QV – ( QReflux + QD )
= 172.12 x 106 kJ / hr
Assuming cooling water enter the condenser at 25oC & leaves at 45oC
46
172.12 x 106 = m x 75.7962 x 20
T = 173 oC
= 603.39 x 103 kJ / hr
Reboiler Load:
QB + QFeed = QD + QW + QC
= 143.71x 103 kJ / hr
Reboiler load
= 196.97 x 106 kJ / hr
steam =2037.51 kJ / kg
QB = mλ steam
47
196.97 x 106 = m x 2037.51
CHAPTER VIII
REACTIONS KINETICS & THERMODYNAMICS
Here,
FAO = 208.876 Kmol/hr
= 9190.544 Kg/hr
V0 = 10.649 m3/hr
FAO = CAO V0
208.87 = Cao x 10.649
CAO = 19.6136 Kmol/m3 = 19.6136 mol/lit
Similarly,
CBO = 5.555 Kmol/m3 = 55.555 mol/lit
Now, Rate of reaction is given by
– d (C2H4O) = {K0([H2O] + b [Gyi]) + Kct [HCO3–]} X
dt {{[H2O] + p [Gyi]}x [Oxide]}
Where,
Gyi = concentration of reactant (mol/lit)
48
[H2O] = concentration of water (mol/lit)
[Oxide] = concentration of oxide (mol/lit)
b = distribution factor =2.8
p = 1.88
– d (C2H4O) = – rA = {K0(CB + b (CA + CB)) + Kct [HCO3–] } X
dt {(CB + p (CA + CB)) x [CA]}
XB = 0.3530 XA
- rA ={ K0[(CBO(1 – 0.3530 XA)) + 2.8 (CAO (1 – XA) + CBO (1 – 0.3530 XA))]
+ Kct [0.25]} x {[CBO (1 – 0.3530 XA) + 1.88 [CAO (1 – XA) + CBO (1 –
0.3530 XA)]}x CAO (1 – XA)}
49
1.88 [19.6135 (1 – XA) + 55.555 (1 – 0.3530 XA)]}x
19.6136 (1 – XA)}
XA = 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.98
-rA = 654.5 532.40 424.57 330.131 248.286 178.2369 119.1836 70.31 30.86 53.60
(1/-
rA)
0.005 0.0018 0.0023 0.00302 0.00402 0.00561 0.0084 0.01 0.03 0.186
(lit.hr
/mol)
1
From the above data plotting a XA Vs ( ) & finding the area under he curve at
rA
Xa = 0.98
V = d XA
FAO 0 - rA
XA
50
d XA =Area under the curve
0 - rA
Area under the curve = 0.01227
V
FAo = 0.01227
V = 2562.90 lit
V = 2.56 m3
Now we have
= Empty volume in bed
Total bed Volume
1– = 1 – Empty volume in bed
Total bed Volume
1– = Total Bed Vol – Empty volume in bed
Total bed Volume
But Total Bed – Empty volume in Bed = Volume of Catalyst.
1– = Volume of Catalyst
Total bed Volume
1– = Volume of Catalyst
2.56 m3
Consider = 0.6
Total Volume of Catalyst = 1.024 m3
8.2 THERMODYNAMICS
As we know the Gibb’s free energy is given by following equation
ΔG = -RT lnK
Where K = Kequ = (ka * kb)/ (kc * kd)
From reaction,
ka and kb are rate constants for the products.
Similarly kc and kd are rate constants for the reactants. But assuming reaction is
exothermic and irreversible; the values of kc and kd will not be in consideration to
finding out equilibrium rate constant.
Hence, Kequ is given by
Kequ = ka kb
51
Enthalpy, Gibbs free energy and specific heat data are below at reaction temperature
100 0C in the form of functional group. [11]
G = [(-81.31)]-[(-23.12) + (-8.728)]
G = - 49.53 KJ/Kmol K
Ka = exp [-(-49.53) / (8314*373)]
Ka =1.00
ln(K2/K1)= E/R[(1/T1)-(1/T2)] [15]
ln(9.5/8)= E/8.314[(1/368)-(1/373)]
E = 7.52*E*-7 J/mol
52
CHAPTER IX
MAJOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN
2.56
=
0.001963
53
Velocity:
m
U = Atp
m = 12.996 Kg/Sec
12.996
U =
973.09 x 0.64
U = 0.02 m/sec
du
Now, NRe = x (1 )
= (2.5 x 10-2) x (0.02) x (973.09)
(4.187 x 10-4) x (1 -0.6)
NRe = 2905.09
Now, AO = Nt x x d xL
= (1304) x x (2.5 x 10-2) x (4)
AO = 409.66 m2
Shell diameter:
0.5
CL Aox( PR 2 xdo)
0.637
Ctp L
Ds =
Consider the Triangular pitch
CTP = 0.9
CL = 0.7
0.9 4
Ds = 1.123 m
Now, No. of tubes that can be accommodate
Nt = 0.875 CTP __(Ds)2
CL (PR)2 (d)2
= 0.875 0.9 ____(1.123)2
0.7 (1.25)2 (0.025)2
= 1452.8 > Total No of tube that is required.
54
For triangular pitch
De = 4 3 PT2 – d2
2 4
d
PT
Pitch ratio = PR =
d
PT
1.5=
0.0025
PT = 0.03125 m
De = 4 3 (0.31252 – x (2.5 x 10-2)2
2 4
x 0.0025
De = 0.018 m
m
Gs =
As
DsxCxB
As =
PT
C = PT – do
= 0.03125 – 0.025
= 0.00625
B = 0.4 Ds
= 0.4 x 1.125
= 0.45
As = 0.101 m2
m
Gs =
As
= 12.996
0.10
55
(hox 0.018)
=
0.62
0.55 0.333
0.018 x128.58 5.1865 x103 x9 x10 4
x x 1
0.14
0.36 x
9 x10 4 0.62
w
ho = 1825.04
m 20 k
Tube side H.T.C:
Nu = 0.023 (NRe)0.8 (Pr)0.4
hixdi 0.8 (Cp ) 0.4
= 0.023 x (2905.09) x ( )
k k
hix 0.025 ( 4.84 x103 x 4.187 x104 ) 0.4
= 0.023x( 2905.09) 0.8 ( )
0.54 0.254
w
hi = 672.163
m 20 k
Over all H.T.C
1 1 1
= 0.005
Uo ho hi
1 1
= 0.005
1825.08 672.163
w
Uo = 142.133
m 20 k
Now,
Total H.T area available = 409.66 m2
Rate of H.T. is given by
Q = UAT
(1.1956 x 106) = 117.03 x A x 20
A = 420.59 m2 > A available
Tube side pressure drop :
Tube side pressure drop is given by
P gc x ()3 x Dp x
Z = 150 (1 – ) + 1.75
(1 – ) (G’)2 Nre
(P/Z) (1) (0.6)3 (1.2 x 10-3) x (973.09) = 150 x (0.4) + 1.75
(0.4) (19.4608 )2 2905.09
56
P
= 1.063 KN /m2 < 30 - 40 KN/m2
Z
Shell side P:
P = f x (Gs2) x (Nb + 1) x Ds
2 x x Dex s
f = exp [(0.57 – 0.19 ln (Res)]
= exp [0.57 – 0.19 ln(2571.6)]
f = 0.3977
s = 1
Nb = L/B = 4 / 0.45
= 8.88 9
P = 0.3977 x 128.58 x (9 + 1) x 1.123
2 x 995.40 x 0.018 x 1
P = 15 N / m2
57
D= 184.54 kmol
= 11448.8616 kg
MEG =
D 184.355kmol
I (0.999.high purity)
S HG = 0.18454kmol
T
I
F = 188.306 kmol L
= 11766.873 kg L
MEG = 186.218kmol A
=11545.545kg T
I
HG =2.088kmol O
= 221.328kg. N
W = 3.766 kmol
= 317.664 kg
MEG = 1.8523kmol
HG = 1.9136kmol
Steam
Condensate
PROCESS DESIGN:
Let ,
Mole fraction of MEG XF= 0.9889
XD = 0.999
XW = 0.4918
9.2.1 Nos of theoretically stages
Use McCabe Theile method for determining the theoretical stages.
McCabe Theile Method: [17,21]
Assumption:
Binary mixture separation between MEG & DEG.
P = total pressure of the system = 10 mmHg
So, at top Psat MEG = 1.334 KPa
Psat DEG = 0.1331 KPa
So, top = Psat MEG / Psat DEG
58
= 1.334 / 0.1333
= 10.077
Now at bottom Psat MEG = 1.4757 KPa
Psat DEG = 0.1673 KPa
So, bottom = Psat MEG / Psat DEG
= 1.4757 / 0.1673
= 8.8174
Thus, average = { top x bottom }0.5
= {10.007 x 8.8174}0.5
average = 9.3933
Now we have the equation
Y = X / {1+ (-1)}
From the above eqn we can generate the vapor- liquid equilibrium data given as
follow.
9 4 2 3 7 7 3 0
Now plotting x-y diagram & Using McCabe Theile method for determining the
theoretical stages.
no. of theoretical stages = 18
9.2.2 Packed Column Diameter And Column Height:
The necessary data required is as follows :
Reflux Ratio = 0.71
Feed = saturated liquid (assume)
Kmol of Feed F = 188.306 kmol
Kmol of Distillate D = 184.54 kmol
Kmol of Bottom W = 184.54 kmol
Liquid density L = 954 Kg/m3
Vapor Density G = 2.099Kg/m3
59
Liquid Viscosity = 2.2 x 10-3 Kg/m s
No. of theoretical stages = 18 ( from vapor liquid Equilibrium
diagram) Owing to its low pressure drop per theoretical stage metal Pall Ring is often
preffered to other packings for vacuum distillation.
Here, L/D =0.71
L = 131.0234 Kmol / hr
Vapor rate = V = L+D
= 184.54 + 131.0234
= 375.5634 Kmol / hr.
Mass flow rate of vapor
(375.5634 x 62.044)
Mg =
(3600)
M g = 6.4726 Kg /s
Mass flow rate of liqid
131.0234 x 62.044
Ml =
3600
M l = 2.2581 Kg /s
Flow parameter
Ml g
X
Mg g l --------------------------- (2)
Where, X = flow parameter
Ml = Mass flow rate of liquid = 2.2581 Kg/s
Mg = Mass flow rate of vapor = 6.4726 Kg/s
g = Density of vapor =2.099Kg/m3
l = Density of liquid =954 Kg/m3
From equation (2)
2.2581 2.099
=
6.4726 (954 2.099)
X = 0.01638
By using plot of flooding and Pressure drop.
Ml g G 2 f P l0.1
X Y
Mg g l V/S
g g l
60
Here column is operated under vacuum, plot value at X = 0.01638
N
Take, P 50 m 2 ref.
Z m
We get Y = 0.0125
G 2 f P l0.1
Y
g g l
----------------------------------------- (3)
Owing to its low-pressure drop, the metal pall ring is used as a packing for vacuum
distillation,
61
Diameter of tower = D = 4.81 5 m
Total height of packed bed,
Z = No.of theoretical stages x H.E.T.P.
HETP = height equivalent to one theoretical plate
For pall ring metal (1.5”) H.E.T.P. = 0.5425
Z = No .of theoretical stages x H.E.T.P.
Z = 18 x 0.5425
Z = 9.765 m
= 10 m
In packed tower, height of each bed is approximately ≥ its diameter.
Hence, 2 beds of 5 m heights are provided.
Spacing between each bed is = 2 m
Hence, total spacing = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5 m
Taking both disengaging space and distribution space = 2 m
Hence total height of tower = 10 + 2 + 2
= 14 m
MECHANICAL DESIGN [23, 24, 26]
9.2.3 Shell Design:
Shell Thickness (based on external pressure):
Diameter of tower = Di = 5m
Height of column = 14 m
Pressure inside column is vacuum.
Outside pressure is 1 atm = 0.1 MN /m2
Hence design pressure = Pd = 0.1 x 1.05
= 0.105 MN /m2
Shell is I.S. 2825-1969
Allowable stress = f = 98.1 MN /m2
Welding joint efficiency factor = J = 0.85
Thickness of shell,
The inside depth of the end can be calculated from the following correlation,
hi = Ri - Ri Di / 2 x( Ri Di / 2 2ri
Ri = 5m
Di = Do =5m (initial approximation)
62
ri = 0.1 x Ro
= 0.5m
hi = 5 - (5 5 / 2) x(5 5 / 2 2 x0.5)
= 0.9686 m
Effective length of tower W/O stiffner = (Tangent to Tangent length + 2/3 x hi)
= 12 + 2/3x 0.9688
= 12.6459m
Do / L = 5/ 12.6459
= 0.3953
K value corresponding to this = 0.246 & m =2.43
Modulus of elasticity E = 1x 105 MN/m2
Corroded shell thickness,
P = KxE x (t/Do)m
0.105 = 0.246 x 1 x 105 (t/4)2.43
t = 0.02467 m
Take standard thickness = 26 m
t = 26 m
Checking for plastic deformation,
1
P = 2x f x t/Do x 1 [1.5U (1 0.2 Do / l ) / 100 x(t / Do)]
63
= 145 oC
Table-9.3 Head thickness
t(cm) Ro / t Ro / 100t Factor B P=
(assumed)
factB
14.22 xRo / t
1.2 378.9 3.78 4400 0.7402
1.3 349.75 3.49 4500 0.8201
1.4 324.77 3.24 4800 0.9421
1.5 303.2 3.03 5000 1.051› Pdesign
DATA:
Vessel Type = Class 1
Pdesign =1.05 MN/m2
Total Column height = 14 m
Column Diameter = 5m
Skirt height = 4 m
Packing Type = 38mm Metal Pall ring
Column MOC = SS304
Wind Pressure = 1000 N/m2
Weight of attachments (ladder + pipes + liquid distributor) = 1373.4N
ρliquid = 1113.2 Kg/m3 =10.917 x 103 N/m3
Head = Torispherial
Head thickness =18mm
Tdesign = 145o C
Permissible Stress =91.8 MN/m2
ρs = 78480 N/m3
Insulation = Asbestos
ρin = 5.64*103 N/m3
64
tin =50 *10-3 m
Shell thickness without corrosion allowance = 26
= 0.026m
Do = 5.052m
Vessel is Located in non seismic zone
Determination Of Longitudinal Stresses:
Axial Stress due to pressure
p = P x Do / 4 x ts
= 1.05 x 5.052 / 4 x 0.026
= 51.005 MN/ m2
65
= 918.511 x 103 N
Total weight of packing = packed bed volume x density of packing
= Π x D2x H /4 x ρp
= Πx52x 10 /4 x 430
= 83.43 x 103 kg
= 824.08 x 103 N
l = Weight of (liquid + packing) / x D x ts
Weight of ( liquid + packing) =Weight of liquid + total weight of packing
= ( 918.511 x 103 + 824.08 x 103 )
= 1.7465MN
l = 1.7465 x X / x ( 5.052) x( 0.026 )
= 4.243 x X MN/m2
( d ) Stress due to attachments
Whead =0.02831 MN
dead = s + in + l + a
The axial Stress due to wind load in self supporting tall vessel,
The total load due to wind acting on the bottom and upper part of thr vessel are
determined by
Pw = K1 x K2 x Pwindpress x H x Do ( insulated )
66
Where,
Pw = wind pressure = 1000 n/m2
K1 = coefficient depending upon the shape factor = 0.7 for cylindrical surface
K2 = coefficient depending upon the period of vibration of the vessel
= 1 if period of vibration is 0.5 sec or less
=2 if period of vibration is exceed 0.5
Do( insulated ) = Di + 2 tin
H = L + Skirt height
W = total weight
Now,
Weight of shell
Ws = x Dits x L x ρs
= (3.14) x (5) x (0.026) x ( 14 ) x (78480)
Ws = 0.4487 M N
Weight of insulation
Win = x D x tin x L x ρin
= ( 3.14 ) x ( 5 ) ( 0.05 ) x ( 14 ) x ( 5.64*103 )
Win = 0.06266 MN
Weight of attachment = Weight of two heads + Weight of ladder, pipes, liq distributor
= 2 (0.02831) + 1.3734 x 10-3
Wa = 0.058 N
K2 =1
67
K1 = 0.7 for cylindrical vessel
b) Wind load
Pw = K1 x K2 x Pwindpress x H x Do ( insulated )
Bending moment
i.e Wind moment at the base of the vessel due to wind load is given by
Mwind = { Pwmd x H }/2
= 3.571 x X x X /2
Mwind = 1.785 x X2 KN m
wind = 4 x Mwind / x ts x D2
f (max) = f x J
= 98.1 x 0.85
= 83.385 MN/m2
So This design is Ok
68
Down wind side ,
f compression =p + dead +wind
compressive = 0.125 x E x ( t / Do )
= 0.125 x ( 2 x 105) x ( 0.026 / 5.052 )
= 128.661 MN/m2
Equating maximum value of f comp.
The minimum weight of vessel with two head and the shell is given by
Wmin = Ws + 2 Whead
= 0.4487 + ( 2x 0.03831)
Wmin =0.50532 MN
The maximum weight of vessel with two head and the shell is given by
K2 = 1
K1 = 0.7 for cylindrical vessel
69
Pw = K1 x K2 x ( Pw ) x H x Do (based on insulation thickness)
Do = Di + 2 x tin
= 5+ 2 x ( 0.05 )
= 5.1 m
For minimum Weight condition Do = 5.052 m
For maximum Weight condition Do = 5.1 m ( insulated )
Pwmin = 0.7 x ( 1 ) x ( 1000 ) x ( 18 ) x ( 5.052 )
= 63.665KN
Pwmax = ( 0.7 ) x ( 1 ) x ( 1000 ) x ( 18 ) x ( 5.1 )
= 64.26 K N
Wind moment
Mwind = Pw x H / 2
Mwindmi = 63.665 x 18 / 2
= 572.89 KN m
Mwinsmax = 64.26 x 18 /2
= 578.34 KN
Wind stress
wind = 4 x Mwind / x Di2 x tsk
wind min = 4 x 572.89 / 3.14 x ( 5 )2 * tsk
= 30.277 / tsk KN / m2
wind max = 4 x 578.34 / 3.14 x ( 5 )2 tsk
= 29.4821 / tsk KN / m2
dead,min = Wmin / x Di x tsk
= 0.50532 / 3.14 x 5 x tsk
= 0.0328 / tsk M N / m2
dead max = Wmax / x Di x tsk
= 2.37248 / ( 3.14 ) x ( 5) x tsk
= 0.151 / tsk MN / m2
tensile = permissible x J
= 98.1 x 0.85
= 83.385 MN/m2
tensile = windmin - deadmin
83.385 = windmin - deadmin
70
tsk = 3.11 x10 5 m
SR.
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION
NO.
1 Tower MOC SS304
2 Tower ID 5m
3 Tower OD 5.052 m
4 Shell thickness 26 mm
5 Shell head thickness 18mm
6 Height of tower(Without support) 14m
7 Height of packed Bed 10 m
8 Type of Head Torrispherical
9 No. of Beds of packing 2 , each of height 5 m
10 P/Z Selected 50 N/M2/m
11 Tower Support Skirt Support
12 Skirt MOC SS304
13 Skirt Height 4m
14 Skirt thickness 8 mm
15 Type Pall Ring
16 MOC Metal (S S)
17 Bulk Density 430 kg/m3
18 HETP 0.5425m
71
CHAPTER X
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
72
Depending on temperature and velocity condition the suitable meter is selected for
measurement of flow rates and velocity.
10.2.3 Temperature Measuring Devices:
Many devices are used to measure the temperature variations in the process such as
mercury in glass thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, pressure spring thermometer,
thermocouples, resistance thermocouples, radiation pyrometers and optical
pyrometers are used.
Out of all these the industrial thermocouples are competitively good as they provide
large measuring range, without introducing error. Automatic control is also possible
with such devices.
Table-10.1 List of Thermometers with temperature Range
Measuring Instrument Temp. Range ºC
Mercury in glass – thermometer -27 to 400
Mercury in pressure thermometer -40 to 540
Vapor pressure thermometer -85 to 425
Resistance -200 to 1700
Thermocouple -250 to 1700
Thermister Up to 300
Pyrometer 1300 to 2500
73
Mc Leod gauge
Pirani gauge
In addition to all measuring devices described above various measurements like
density, viscosity, pH measurements etc. are installed.
For measuring quality standards in laboratory various laboratory instruments are also
necessary.
10.2.5. Liquid Level:
Liquid level detectors measure either the position of a free liquid surface above a
datum level or the hydrostatic head developed by the liquid is measured.
The liquid level is measured both by direct and indirect means. Direct methods
involve direct measurement of the distance from the liquid level to a datum level.
Indirect method follows changing liquid surface position on bubble tube method,
resistance method, radiation method, etc.
74
Less production cost.
Management information can be generated at regular intervals which assist
management to take decisions.
3. Operational point of view:
Ease in operation.
Any combination of control group, trend group, over view path can be
formed.
Because of dynamic graphic role picture of process is available.
Easy diagnostics of trip and emergency conditions.
Automatic logging of data is done by printer and hence eliminating weakness
related human being.
Control is available through dynamic graphics which gives feeling to operator
as if he is inside the plant and controlling the process.
Alarm systems can be regrouped to various sub groups so that operator can
detect the error and causes easily.
4. Engineer’s Point of view:
Latest software is available for all types of complex function.
Required less time for designing and detail engineering.
Operators action can be logged which eliminates confusions in the event of
plant trips and consequent analysis.
Flexibility is available at each level of hardware and software.
10.3.2 Demerits of DCS:
In present control room lot of paramagnets are seen without any intentional, efforts
hence operator feels himself existing in between the information.
In case of new DCS systems, all information and data though presented in a
systematic format, is hidden behind the CRT and hence to be called by operator. This
requires more skill and knowledge. With acceptance of DCS, number of operators in
control room decreased and hence, in case of emergency decision has to be taken by
almost single handed as against group decision in present situation.
In single loop control system failure of one controller affects only one control loop,
while case of DCS one component / card carries out lot of functions and hence failure
of it causes failure of many loops.
This calls for very high MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) and high degree of
redundancy making such systems costly.
75
A limitation may be felt in operating number of control loops simultaneously in case
of emergency, if adequate numbers of CRT consoles are not installed. Skilled
personnel are required.
CHAPTER XI
PLANT UTILITY
76
The utilities such as water, air, steam, electricity etc. are required for most of the
chemical process industries. These utilities are located at a certain distance from
processing area, from processing area hazardous and storage area etc, where a
separate utility department works to fulfill the utilities requirements.
Steam Generation
Cooling water
Water
Electricity
Compressed air
The utilities required for the plant are summarized as below.
77
Cooling by sensible heat transfer
Cooling by evaporation
11.3 WATER:
A large reservoir has to be made which received water from nearby river. Storage also
must provide to such extent that turbidity is settling and then sent to raw water plant
for further treatment. Chlorine dose must be given to kill bacteria which prevent
organic matter. Then this water is sent to further treatment. To cooling tower, DM
plant, service water system, drinking water system, fire water system.
Cooling water is required for heat cooler, condenser etc. for cooling effect. Here in
cooling tower water is fall from high level and contacted with cross flow of air. Latent
heat of water is high that even a small amount of water evaporates produce large
cooling effect. The temp of CW is up to 25 to 30 ˚C.
DM water is use for process . DM water is produced by removing impurities salts,
pass through anion exchanger.
11.4 ELECTRICITY:
It is required for motor drives , lighting and general use. It may be generated on site or
purchase from GEB & G.I.P.C.L. Transformers will be to step-down the supply
voltage to the voltage used on the site. A three-phase 415-volt system is used in
general industrial purposes and 240-volt single phase for lighting and other low power
requirements. For large motors, high voltage 600 to 1100 is used.
CHAPTER XII
SAFETY, HEALTH AND POLLUTION CONTROL
78
12.1 SAFE OPERATIONS:
The goal of chemical plant is not only to produce the chemicals, but to produce them
safely. In the plant’s chain of processes and operations, loss of control anywhere can
lead to accidents and losses of life and property from hazards. Attempts should be to
prevent troubles from the inspection, while designing, fabricating and operating.
Safety generally involves:
(1) Identification and assessments of the hazards
(2) Control of hazards
(3) Control of the process by provision of automatic control system, interlocks,
alarm trips, etc
(4) Limitation of the loss, by press relief, plant layout, etc.
79
Skin Protection: Wear protective gloves and clean body-covering clothing.
Eye Contact: Couses burns
Eye Protection:
Use chemical safety goggles. Maintain eye wash fountain and quick-
drench facilities in work area.
80
Shut off supply. If not possible and no risk to surroundings, let the fire
burn itself out.
Unsuitable: Do not use water in a jet.
Extinguishing Media Protective Equipment :
Wear full protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus.
Additional Advice:
If the fire cannot be extinguished the only course of action is to
evacuate immediately. Large fires should only be fought by properly
trained fire fighters. Evacuate the area of all non-essential personnel.
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES:
Protective measures:
Avoid contact with spilled or released material. Isolate hazard area and
they deny entry to unnecessary or unprotected personnel. Stay unwinds
and keeps out of low areas. Extinguish ant make flames. Do not
smoke. Remove ignition sources. Avoid sparks.
Clean Up Methods:
Use water spray (fog) to reduce vapors or divert vapour cloud drift. Do
not use water in ajet. Alcohol foam applied to surface of liquid pools
may slow release of EO vapors into the atmosphere.
Product Transfer:
81
Electrostatic charges may be generate during pumping. Electrostatic
discharge may cause fire. Lines should be purged with nitrogen before
and after product transfer. Refer to supplier for further product transfer
instructions if required.
DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Material Disposal:
82
Prolonged skin contact is unlikely to result in absorption of harmful
amounts.
Inhalation:
At room temperature, exposure to vapor is minimal due to low
volatility. With good ventilation, single exposure is not expected to
cause adverse effects.
Effects of Repeated Exposure:
Repeated excessive exposure may cause irritation of the upper
respiratory tract. In humans, effects have been reported on the
following organs: Central nervous system.
Birth Defects
Based on animal studies, ingestion of very large amounts of ethylene
glycol appears to be the major and possibly only route of exposure to
produce birth defects.
FIRST-AID MEASURES:
Eye Contact:
Flush eyes thoroughly with water for several minutes. Remove contact
lenses after the initial 1-2 minutes and continue flushing for several
additional minutes.
Skin Contact:
Wash skin with plenty of water.
Inhalation:
Move person to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration; if
by mouth to mouth use rescuer protection (pocket mask, etc).
83
Wear positive-pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and
protective fire.
PERSONAL PROTECTION:
Eye/Face Protection:
Use safety glasses. If exposure causes eye discomfort, use a full-face
respirator.
Skin Protection:
Use protective clothing chemically resistant to this material. Selection
of specific items such as face shield, boots, apron, or full body suit will
depend on the task. Remove contaminated clothing immediately.
Hand protection:
If hands are cut or scratched, use gloves chemically resistant to this
material even for brief exposures. Use gloves with insulation for
thermal protection, when needed. Examples of preferred glove barrier
materials include: Butyl rubber. Natural rubber
84
Decomposition products depend upon temperature, air supply and the
presence of other materials.Decomposition products can include and
are not limited to: Aldehydes. Alcohols. Ethers.
TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION:
Acute Toxicity:
Ingestion
For ethylene glycol: Lethal Dose, Human, adult 3 Ounces LD50, Rat
6,000 - 13,000 mg/kg
Skin Absorption
LD50, Rabbit > 22,270 mg/kg
Inhalation
LC50, 7 h, Aerosol, Rat > 3.95 mg/l
ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION:
Chemical Oxygen Demand:
1.19 mg/mg
Theoretical Oxygen Demand:
1.29 mg/mg
DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:
All disposal practices must be in compliance with all Federal,
State/Provincial and local laws and regulations. Regulations may vary
in different locations. Waste characterizations and compliance with
applicable laws are the responsibility solely of the waste generator.
85
Location of gauge glass - Gauge glass for reading level in the tank should be located
away from path where many people may be working.
Location of safety valve/ vent line - The vent pipe should not be located in a closed
area.
Location of flammable material - Storage should be away from any source of flame.
Smoking - Do not smoke in unauthorized area where flammable materials are likely to
be present.
Purging with inert atmosphere - Before entering a reactor or a distillation column
containing hazardous vapors, the equipment must be purged with air/inert gas for
sufficiently long time.
Machinery guards - Install guards on moving machinery parts.
Incompatible chemicals - Do not mix incompatible materials together.
Earthling of equipment - When two phase mixture is being separated into different
tanks, the tank should be earthed to avoid spark due to accumulation of static
electricity.
Explosion due to dust - In the operation of fine grinding, solid temperature increases
which can lead to dust explosion initiated by hot metal. It can be prevented by cooling
grinder with water or inert gas purging.
Drying and ignition of flammable liquids - Keep air flow rate high so that air vapor
mixture is not near flammable limit.
Mixing - It should be effective to take care of exothermic heat of reaction.
Good house keeping - Do not store waste flammable materials near flame source.
Labeling of chemicals - Label the chemicals so that they do not get mixed up with
incompatible chemicals.
Pipetting - Do not suck with mouth, use rubber bulb.
Free excess energy exit - Do not store anything in passage way destructing free
movement in emergency.
86
2. General Precautions:
Maintain good housekeeping. Follow the laid down procedure strictly.
Sampling and draining of hydrocarbon should be done under strict
supervision. Do not operate an equipment unauthorized. Use only approved
type of tools. Anticipate the hazards during vessel cleaning and take
prevention steps in advance.
An emergency manual can be prepared to outline procedures and drills and detail
responsibilities of each individual involved.
Training
Valuable Check On The Adequacy and Condition of exits
and Alarm system
Instills a Sense of Security Among The Occupiers if Careful Plans Are Made.
Exits Drills
Plant Drills (Mock drills in plant area)
Mutual Aid Drills
On-Site / Off site Drills etc.
87
12.5.3 Mass Transfer:
Safe guards are,
Prevent liquid injection and vigorous flashing in hot column.
Provide both pressure and vacuum relief.
Use detection and warning devices for build up of hazardous material.
Provide thermal expansion in system.
12.5.4 Pressure Vessels:
It includes,
Corrosion allowance must be provided.
Take care weld joint efficiency.
Design pressure is maximum operating pressure plus static pressure
plus 5 %.
Design temperature is 25-30 ºC above maximum operating
temperature.
Use safety over design factor of 15 – 20 %.
12.5.5 Instrumentation and Safety devices:
Thermocouple burnout, stem or cooling water failure.
Fusible plugs to relive pressure above design value.
Combustible gas monitor with alarms for flammable.
Over temperature switch.
Waste arises mainly as byproducts or unused reactants from the process, or as off-
specification product produced through mis-operation. In emergency situations,
88
material may be discharged to the atmosphere through vents normally protected by
bursting discs and relief valves.
For the present case pH of the effluent stream is expected to be alkaline and hence
addition of acids is recommended to neutralize the same. The suspended solids can be
removed by settling, using Chemical treatment may be given to remove some of the
chemicals.
Oxygen concentration in waste course must be maintained at a level sufficient to
support aquatic life. For this reason the biological oxygen of an effluent is of
paramount importance. Standard BOD 5 tests can be applied for the determination of
the same. The test measures the quantity of oxygen which a given volume of effluent
89
will absorb in 5 days at constant temperature of 20 0C. It is a measure of the organic
matter present in the effluent. Ultimate oxygen demand test can be performed if
required.
Waste water should be discharged into sewers with the agreement of the local water
pollution control authorities or state pollution control boards.
12.6.5 NOISE:
Noise can cause serious nuisance in the neighbourhood of a process plant. Care need
to be taken when selecting and specifying equipments such as compressors, air-cooler
fans, induced and force draft fans for furnaces, and other noisy plant. Excessive noise
can also be generated when venting through steam and other relief valves, and from
flare stacks. Such equipments should be fitted with silencers.Noisy equipments should
be as far away form the site boundary.
12.6.6 VISUAL IMPACT:
The appearance of the plant should be considered at the design stage. Few people
object to fairyland appearance of a process plant illuminated at the night, but it is
different scene at daytime. There is little that can be done to change the appearance of
modern style plant, where most of the equipment and piping will be outside and in full
view but some steps should be taken to minimize the visual impact.
12.6.7 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING:
The company should go for a systematic examination of how a business operation
affects the environment. It will include all emissions to air, land and water and cover
the legal constraints the effect on the community the landscape and the ecology.
Following are some of the objectives of the environmental audit:
To identify environmental problems associated with the manufacturing
process and the use of the products before they become liabilities.
To develop standards for good working practices.
To ensure compliance with environmental legislation.
To satisfy requirements of insurers.
To be seen to be concerned with environmental questions: important for public
relation
To minimize the production of waster: an economic factor
90
12.7 HAZOP OPERATION OF STORARGE TANK TO REACTOR SYSTEM
91
3) Check proper
operation of cooling
water system.
CHAPTER XIII
PLANT LOCATION AND LAY OUT
92
13.1 PLANT LOCATION:
Plant location means to discover an exact place where an industrial experience can be
started more profitable & a plant is a place where men, material, money, equipment,
machinery etc. are brought together for manufacturing products. Plant location
involves two major activities. Plant location plays a major role in the design or
production as it determines the cost of :
Getting suitable raw material.
Processing raw material to finished products.
Finished products distribution to customers.
The final selection of the plant location has a strong influence on the success of any
industrial venture. The following eighteen factors should be considered in choosing a
plant side.
13.1.2 Markets
The location of markets or intermediates distribution centers can heavily affect the
cost of product distribution. Primarily to large market can be beneficial in the
following three ways:
The cost of transportation of the finished goods to the market is brought
drastically down.
93
The delay in supplying the goods to the market can be continently reduced &
avoided.
The market is studied properly & easily i.e. the future requirements can be
easily & accurately predicted.
13.1.5 Climate
Weather can have serious effect on the economic operating of the plant. Temperature
& humidity of weather should be favorable.
13.1.6 Transportation
The everyday products are always needed to be transported from the plant site to the
marked or other plants & the raw materials necessary from the sources to the plant.
Hence transportation holds a great deal in the final product cost. A plant should have
easy access to transport facilities. Not only that, the transport facilities available to the
plant should also be sufficient, quick & available at reasonable rates. Water, railway
& national high-ways are the most common means of transportation. These facilities
are very much necessary for the transfer of raw material & product transportation.
Luckily Baroda has all of these facilities.
13.1.7 Labor supply
94
Availability of skilled laborers with constant supply & reasonable pay rate should be
considered in the selection of the plant site. Labor problem should be minimum.
13.1.15 Existence of hospitals, marketing centers, schools, banks, post offices, clubs
An ideal industry or organization is that which takes full care of its employees &
persons who are directly or indirectly involved with it. To cope up with the situation
of casualties or accidents pressure of a well-equipped hospital is a must. Other than
this a reputed school & the banking & postal facilities are the prime requirement of
the families of the employees.
3.1.17 Securities
The security of the plant site & the housing facility from the unsocial elements is
necessary & should be given equal attention.
96
The raw materials necessary are easily available from the nearby industrial
area & the industrial estate is always running with large number of chemical
industries, & hence getting skilled & experienced labor at reasonable rates is
not a problem.
97
often encountered when it is necessary to meet seasonal demands from steady
production.
98
CHAPTER XIV
COST ESTIMATION
A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions, which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all
expenses, it is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of many different types of
costs involved in manufacturing processes.
99
TOTAL PURCHASE EQUIPMENT COST (PEC) = 2125 Thusd Rs.
Purchased Equipment
1 100 2125
Delivered cost
Purchased
2 Equipment 40 850
Installation cost
Instrumentation & Control cost
3 15 318.75
(Installed)
4 Piping cost (Installed) 60 1275
5 Electrical Installation cost 12 255
6 Building cost 18 382.5
7 Yard improvement cost 10 212.5
8 Service facilities cost 70 1487.5
9 Land purchase cost 10 212.5
100
+Working Capital Investment
= 10678.115 + 2135.625
= 12831.73 Thusd Rs.
101
= Raw Material Cost + Utilities Cost + Maintenance and
Repair Cost + Operating Labour & Supervision Cost +
Lab & Other Service Cost [19]
= 30953.115 + 2135.623 + 1067.875 + 1547.665 +
309.531
= 36013.735 thusd Rs.
Fixed Cost:
102
= 0.01 x 39163.1069
= 391.631 thusds Rs.
(2) Distribution & Marketing cost = 2% Of Manufacturing cost
= 0.02 x 39163.1069
= 783.262 thusds Rs.
TOTAL GENERAL EXPENSES = 1174.893 thusds Rs.
MEG 99829190.88 60
= 59897.514 – 40338.00
= 0.4 x 19559.51
103
= 7823.80 thusds Rs.
= 19559.51– 7823.80
10678.115
= 11735.70 + 1067.8115
= 0.83 Years
RATE OF RETURN:
It is given by R.O.R
11735 .70
= x100
12813.73
= 91.85 %
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