Production of acetaldehyde

INDEX

SR.
TITLES PAGE NO.
NO

1 Introduction 7

2 Market survey 8-11

3 Literature Review 12

4 Properties & uses 13-17

5 Different method manufacturing Process 18-23

6 Description of the Process 24

7 Material and Energy balance of vapouriser 25-29

8 References 30

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Abstract

The present work illustrates the production of acetaldehyde by different production methods,
market survey, literature survey and selection of an appropriate method.Indian consumption is
anticipated to have moderate growth rate on an average nearly 5% yearly.Present and future
condition of demand for acetaldehyde. Further, I have discussed properties of acetaldehyde.
Acetaldehyde is mainly used to produce other chemicals such as disinfectants, drugs, perfumes,
explosives, lacquer and varnishes, photographic chemicals, phenolics, and urea resins, rubber
accelerators and antioxidants, and room air deodorizers.
The method of production we have chosen is dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol.
In this process, hydrogen is taken out as a by-product which can be used elsewhere or which
can be used to generate heat. In dehydrogenation process more conversion-taking place
compared to other processes.then taking material and energy balance of vapouriser.

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1.Introduction

Acetaldehyde, CH3CHO is an important intermediate in industrial organic synthesis with IUPAC

name ethanal. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and
being produced on a large scale in industry . In acetaldehyde carbon atom shares a double
bond with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single bond with another
atom of carbon. The double bond between carbon and oxygen is characteristic of all aldehydes
and is known as the carbonyl group.

Acetaldehyde is toxic when applied externally for prolonged periods, an irritant, and a probable
carcinogen. It is an air pollutant resulting from combustion, such as automotive exhaust
and tobacco smoke. Acetaldehyde is an important intermediate in the production of acetic acid,
acetic anhydride, ethyl acetate, peracetic acid, pentaerythritol, chloral, glyoxal, alkyl amines,
and pyridines. Acetaldehyde was first used extensively during World War I as an intermediate
for making acetone from acetic acid.

Acetaldehyde is used in the production of perfumes, polyester resins, and basic dyes. 
Acetaldehyde is also used as a fruit and fish preservative, as a flavouring agent, and as a
denaturant for alcohol, in fuel compositions, for hardening gelatin, and as a solvent in the
rubber, tanning, and paper industries. Acetaldehyde is a normal intermediate product in the
respiration of higher plants. It occurs in traces in all ripe fruits that have a tart taste before
ripening; the aldehyde content of the volatiles has been suggested as a chemical index of
ripening during cold storage of apples. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate product of alcoholic
fermentation but it is reduced almost immediately to ethanol. It may form in wine and other
alcoholic beverages after exposure to air, and imparts an unpleasant taste the aldehyde
ordinarily reacts to form diethyl acetal and ethyl acetate. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate
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product in the decomposition of sugars in the body and, hence, occurs in traces in blood.
Acetaldehyde is a product of most hydrocarbon oxidations.

2 Market Survey

The global market for acetaldehyde has been trending downward for the past twenty years as a
result of the commercialization of more efficient technologies to produce those products
formerly based on acetaldehyde. For example, the production of plasticizer alcohols has totally
switched from N-butyraldehyde based on acetaldehyde to the oxonation of propylene, while
acetic acid is now made predominantly by the lower-cost methanol carbonylation process.
acetic acid manufacturing processes migrating from acetaldehyde based production
techniques towards carbonylation-of-methanol, the world acetaldehyde market are projected
to witness a steady deterioration in consumption. But acetic acid facilities based on
acetaldehyde continue to operate in Asia and South America, although these will eventually be
phased out in favour of methanol carbonylation. In addition to these structural changes,
acetaldehyde demand has also declined in the last few years because of mature end use
markets and the effects of the economic downturn on these acetaldehyde derived products.

So, known capacities and processes, over half of the global capacity for acetaldehyde is using
ethanol as a raw material, mainly in mainland China and India. About 40% is via the oxidation of
ethylene, mainly in the Americas, Western Europe, the CIS and Baltic States, the Middle East,
mainland China, Japan, and Taiwan, while only about 6% of capacity is using acetylene as a raw
material; most of those plants are located in the CIS and Baltic States.

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Figure.1 The following Pie chart shows the global Consumption in the year 2020

In 2020 global acetaldehyde consumption. pyridine bases are important raw materials in the
production of agricultural chemicals. Pentaerythritol and acetate esters mainly ethyl acetate,
but also some isobutyl acetate are both used heavily in surface coatings. This category includes
1, 3-butylene glycol, crotonaldehyde and glyoxal, along with some largervolume derivatives.
As the chart shows, China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world. Chinese
consumption is heavily weighted toward the production of acetic acid. so, the growth of
acetaldehyde in this end use will be limited in the future because any new acetic acid plants is
based on the methanol carbonylation process. Other uses such as pyridines and pentaerythritol
will grow faster than acetic acid, but the volumes are not large enough to offset the decline in
acetic acid.
Acetaldehyde is an important chemical intermediate, but the global market has been trending d
because of the commercialization of more efficient technologies to produce those products
formerly based on acetaldehyde

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China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde then Japan, the United States, and Western
Europe. World consumption of acetaldehyde is forecast to grow at an average of about 4% per
year in the next five years (2020–25), recovering from the more than 11% drop in 2020 caused
by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global economy. Capacity and consumption
growth continue to be mainly done by Asia, particularly by mainland China. Growth in Japan will
be decreased due to weakened demand and its economic recession. The economies of the
United States and Western Europe are being especially hard hit by the pandemic although full
consumption recovery is expected by 2022, growth will be more limited further.

Indian market for acetaldehyde

Indian consumption is anticipated to have moderate growth rate on an average nearly 5% for
the next several years and demand for acetaldehyde use in acetic acid production will grow 5-
6% annually.

Figure 2 : Production volume of acetaldehyde in india

70
Production volume in thousand mrtric tonnes

68 67.77

66 65.74

64

61.89
62
60.46
60
58.96

58

56

54
FY 2015 FY 2016 FY 2017 FY 2018 FY 2019

Present and future condition of demand for acetaldehyde

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Overall, the global market for acetaldehyde has grown on an average 5% annually during
2015-2019. some of this growth is actually decline due to covid-19 for example China’s use in
acetic acid market. Major regions including Western Europe, United States of America will have
low growth than that of global consumption’s rate. the demand for acetaldehyde worldwide
has continued to decrease primarily as a result of less consumption for acetic acid manufacture,
as the industry continues to move toward more efficient methanol carbonylation process. Its
production in North America and Western Europe has decreased but its manufacture in Asia
continues and new acetaldehyde capacity has been installed in china, but this is the only area
where new capacity has been added.
Here, acetaldehyde was mainly used as a precursor to acetic acid. In terms of condensation
reactions, acetaldehyde is an important precursor to pyridine derivatives, pentaerythritol, and
crotonaldehyde. Urea and acetaldehyde combine to give a useful resin. Acetic anhydride reacts
with acetaldehyde to give ethylidene diacetate, a precursor to vinyl acetate, which is used to
produce polyvinyl acetate.
China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world, accounting for almost half of global
consumption in 2019. Major use has been the production of acetic acid. Other uses such
as pyridines and pentaerythritol are expected to grow faster than acetic acid, but the volumes
are not large enough to offset the decline in acetic acid. As a consequence, overall acetaldehyde
consumption in China may grow slightly at 6% per year through 2019. Western Europe is the
second-largest consumer of acetaldehyde worldwide, accounting for 20% of world consumption
in 2018. However, Japan could emerge as a potential consumer for acetaldehyde in next five
years due to newfound use in commercial production of butadiene.

Table 1: Some Leading companies of Acetaldehyde and their Production Capacities

COMPANY Production ( in 103 t)
Ashok organic Inds. Ltd. Gujrat 74
Laxmi organic industries ltd 92
Wacker chemie AG, Germany 85
Japan aldehyde company Ltd, Japan 69
Jilin chemical industrial company, China 162
Kyowa Yuka Company Ltd, Japan 61
Polychem ltd. pune 65

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3. Literature

Acetaldehyde was first prepared by Scheele in 1774, by the action of manganese dioxide
and sulphuric acid on ethanol. Liebig established the structure of acetaldehyde in 1835 when he
prepared a pure sample by oxidizing ethyl alcohol with chromic acid. Liebig named the
compound “aldehyde” from the Latin words translated as alcohol dehydrogenated. Kutscherow
observed the formation of acetaldehyde by the addition of water to acetylene in 1881.
Commercial processes for the production of acetaldehyde include: the oxidation or
dehydrogenation of ethanol, the addition of water to acetylene, partial oxidation of
hydrocarbons, and the direct oxidation of ethylene. It is estimated that in 1976, 29 companies
with more than 82% of the world’s 2.3 megaton per year plant capacity use the Wacker Hoechst
processes for the direct oxidation of ethylene.

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4 .Physical Properties and Uses

Properties
Chemical name:Acetaldehyde
Othername:Ethanal Chemical formulaCH3CHO
Molecular mass: 44.05 g/mol
Appearance: Colourless liquid and Etherial odour
Structure:

Physical properties
Acetaldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid having a pungent suffocating odour that is somewhat
fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations. Some physical properties of acetaldehyde are
shown below Table 2

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Table 2 Physical Properties of Acetaldehyde

Properties Values

Formula weight g/mol 44.053

Melting point°C -123.5

Boiling point at 101.3 kPa (1 atm), °C 20.16

Specific Density 0.8045

Coefficient of expansion per °C (0-30 °C) 0.00169

Refractive index 1.33113

Vapor density (air = 1 ) 1.52

Absolute viscosity at 15 °CmPa.s b 0.02456

Specific heat at 0 °C,J/(g.K) 2.18

At 25 °C 1.41

α = Cp / Cv at 30 °C and 101.3 kPa 1.145

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Latent heat of fusion, kJ/mol 3.24

Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/mol 25.71

Heat of solution in water at 0 °C, kJ/mol - 8.20

At 25 °C - 6.82

Heat of combustion of liquid at constant 11867.9

pressure, kJ/mol

Heat of formation at 273 K, kJ/mol -165.48

Free energy of formation at 273 K, kJ/mol -136.40

Critical temperature, °C 181.5

Critical pressure, MΡa (atm) 6.40(63.2)

Dipole moment, C-m (debyes ) 9.04 x 10 – 30

(2.69)

Ionization potential, Ev 10.50

Dissociation constant at 0 °C, K 0.7 x 10 – 14

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Flash point, closed cup, °C -38

Ignition temperature in air, °C 165

Uses

The manufacturers use about 95% of the acetaldehyde produced internally as an intermediate
for the production of other organic chemicals. Acetic acid and acetic anhydride are the
derivatives of acetaldehyde followed by n-butanol and 2-ethylhexanol. Twenty percent of the
acetaldehyde is consumed in variety of other products, the most important being
pentaerythritol, trimethylolpropane, pyridines, peraceticacid, crotonaldehyde, chloral, lactic
acid. Acetaldehyde is used in the production of perfumes, polyester resins, and basic dyes. 
Acetaldehyde is also used as a fruit and fish preservative, as a flavoring agent, and as a
denaturant for alcohol, in fuel compositions, for hardening gelatin, and as a solvent in the
rubber, tanning, and paper industries.

In the food & beverage industry, acetaldehyde is used in the production of preservatives and
flavorings. it occurs naturally in fruits and fruit juices, ripe fruits, cheese, and heated milk.
Acetaldehyde arises naturally during fermentation and is found in low levels in food stuffs so,
milk products, soy products, pickled vegetables, and nonalcoholic beverages. Acetaldehyde acts
as an additive in fruit and fish preservatives and flavoring agents, as well as a cross-linker in
gelatin hardening. it is also used in producing vinegar and fruit and fish preservative.
Acetaldehyde is mainly used to produce other chemicals such as disinfectants, drugs, perfumes,
explosives, lacquer and varnishes, photographic chemicals, phenolics, and urea resins, rubber
accelerators and antioxidants, and room air deodorizers.

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Production of acetaldehyde

The following Pie chart shows the uses(%)

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5.Different Manufacturing Processes

The manufacture of acetaldehyde are strongly dependent on the price of the feedstock used .

5.1 Oxidation of Ethylene

Reactions:

C2H4+PdCl2 + H2O CH3CHO +Pd +2HCl

Pd + 2CuCl2 PdCl2 +2CuCl

2CuCl+1/2 O2 + 2HCl 2CuCl2 + H2O

The catalyst is an aqueous solution of PdCl2 and CuCl2. In 1894, F.C. Phillips observed the
reaction of ethylene with an aqueous palladium chloride solution to form acetaldehyde. The
net result is a process in which ethylene is oxidized continuously through a series of oxidation –
reduction reactions.
Overall Reaction:

C2 H 4 + ½ O 2 CH3CHO

There are two processes for the production of acetaldehyde by the oxidation of Ethylene.

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5.1.1 Two stage process developed by Wacker Chemie

In the two – stage process ethylene and oxygen (air) react in the liquid phase in two stages. In
the first stage ethylene is almost completely converted to acetaldehyde in one pass in a tubular
plug-flow reactor made of titanium. The reaction is conducted at 125-130 0C and 150 psig
palladium and cupric chloride catalysts. Acetaldehyde produced in the first reactor is removed
from the reaction loop by adiabatic flashing in a tower. The flash step also removes the heat of
reaction. The catalyst solution is recycled from the flash – tower base to the second stage or
oxidation reactor where the cuprous salt is oxidized to the cupric state with air. The high
pressure off gas from the oxidation reactor, mostly nitrogen, is separated from the liquid –
catalyst solution and scrubbed to remove acetaldehyde before venting. The flasher overhead is
fed to a distillation system where water is removed for recycle to the reactor system and
organic impuritiesincluding chlorinated aldehydes are separated from the purified acetaldehyde
product.

5.1.2 One stage process developed by Farbwerke Hoechst

In the one-stage process ethylene, oxygen, and recycle gas are directed to a vertical reactor for
contact with the catalyst solution under slight pressure. The water evaporated during the
reaction absorbs the heat evolved, and make up water is fed as necessary to maintain the
catalytic solution concentration. The gases are water scrubbed and the resulting acetaldehyde
solution is fed to a distillation column and thus acetaldehyde is obtained.

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5.2 By Oxidation of ethyl alcohol

Reaction:

CH3CH2OH + ½ O2 CH3CHO + H2O, ΔH = 242 kJ/mol (57.84 kcal / mol)

Temperature: 4800C
Catalyst: silver

Passing alcohol vapours and preheated air over a silver catalyst at 480 0C carries out the
oxidation. With a multi tubular reactor, conversions of 74-82% per pass can be obtained while
generating steam which can be used elsewhere in the process.

5.3 By Dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol

Reaction:

C2H5OH  →  CH3CHO + H2

Catalyst: Cu -Co-Cr2O3

Temperature: 280 – 350 0C.

Process description

The raw material i.e. ethanol is vaporized and the vapours so generated are heated in a heat
exchanger to the reaction temperature by hot product stream. The product stream is cooled to

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–100C and in doing it all unreacted ethanol and acetaldehyde are condensed. The outgoing
gaseous stream, containing hydrogen mainly is scrubbed with dilute alcohol (alcohol + water) to
remove uncondensed products and the undissolved gas. The remaining pure hydrogen (98%) is
burnt in stack. Ethanol is vaporized in vaporizer and heated to the reactor temperature in heat
exchanger. The heated vapours are passed through the converter. The product stream is first
cooled in heat exchanger and then in condensers using water and liquid ammonia. This
condenses most of the unreacted ethanol and the acetaldehyde formed in reactor.
The escaping gas which is almost pure hydrogen, is scrubbed by ethanol to remove all the
traces of the product. The liquid stream consisting of mainly ethanol and acetaldehyde is
distilled in distillation column to get acetaldehyde.

5.4 Preparation method of acetaldehyde from acetylene

Reaction:

H2C = CH2 + H2O CH3CHO

Temperature: 70-900C
Pressure: 103.4 KPa

Process description

Fresh catalyst is fed to the reactor periodically; the catalyst may be added in the mercurous
form. The excess acetylene sweeps out the dissolved acetaldehyde which is condensed by
water and refrigerated brine and scrubbed with water; the crude acetaldehyde is purified by
distillation and the unreacted acetylene is recycled. The catalytic mercuric ion is reduced to
catalytically inactive mercurous sulfate and metallic mercury; this sludge, consisting of reduced
catalyst and tars, is drained from the reactor at intervals and resulfated. Adding ferric or other
salts to the reaction solution can reduce the rate of catalyst depletion. so, acetylene is
completely hydrated with water in a single operation at 68-730C using the mercuric iron salt
catalyst. The acetaldehyde is partially removed by vacuum distillation and the mother liquor
recycled to the reactor. The aldehyde vapors are cooled to about 35 0C, compressed to 253 KPa
and condensed. It is claimed that this combination of vacuum and pressure operations
substantially reduces heating and refrigeration costs.

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5.5 From synthesisGas

Reaction:
CO + H2 → CH3CHO + other products
Catalyst: Rhodium
Temperature: 3000C

The process is a single step comprises passing synthesis gas over 5% rhodium on SiO2 at 300 0C
and 20 atm. The principal co products are acetaldehyde, 24% acetic acid, 20%; and ethanol,
16%.

5.6 From acetic acid

Reaction:

CH3 COOH + H2 → CH3 CHO + H2 O ΔG300° C. = +0.8 kcal/mole

Catalyst: Iron oxide containing 2.5-90 wt% Pd

Temperature: 250-400 0C

Procedure:

Hydrogen and acetic acid are fed to a reactor in hydrogen to acetic acid ratio of around 2:1 to

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25:1. The hydrogenation of acetic acid produces a partially gaseous product, and acetaldehyde
is absorbed from the partially gaseous product with a solvent containing acetic acid. The gas
remaining after the absorption step contains hydrogen and this gas is recycled for the
hydrogenation of acetic acid. The absorbed acetaldehyde is distilled. After acetaldehyde is
isolated from unreacted acetic acid and the other products via distillation, the unreacted acetic
acid is separated from the other products using azeotropic distillation. Water is contained in the
other products, and the azeotrope is an azeotrope of ethyl acetate and water. The unreacted
acetic acid is separated in a column and the column is controlled to contain an ethyl acetate
rich azeotrope of ethyl acetate and water.

5.7 From Saturated Hydrocarbons:

Acetaldehyde is formed as a co product in the vapour – phase oxidation of saturated

hydrocarbons, such as butane or mixtures containing butane, with air or in higher yield oxygen.
Oxidation of butane yields acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, methanol, acetone, and mixed solvents
as major products other aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, glycols, acetals, epoxides, and organic
acids are formed in smaller concentrations. It has almost no chance to be used as a major
process.

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6. Description of the Process

Production of Acetaldehyde by Dehydrogenation of Ethyl alcohol

Reaction:
C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Catalyst :Cu -Co-Cr2O3

Temperature:280 – 3500C.

Process description:
The raw material that isethanol is vaporized and the vapours so generated are heated in a heat
exchanger to the reaction temperature by hot product stream. The product stream is cooled to
–100C and in doing it all unreacted ethanol and acetaldehyde are condensed. The outgoing
gaseous stream, containing hydrogen mainly are scrubbed with dilute alcohol (alcohol + water)
to remove uncondensed products and the undissolved gas. The remaining pure hydrogen (98%)
is burnt in stack. Ethanol is vaporized in vaporizer and heated to the reactor temperature in
heat exchanger. The heated vapours are passed through the converter. The product stream is
first cooled in heat exchanger and then in condensers using water and liquid ammonia. This
condenses most of the unreacted ethanol and the acetaldehyde formed in reactor. The
escaping gas which is almost pure hydrogen is scrubbed by ethanol to remove all the traces of
the product. The liquid stream consisting of mainly ethanol and acetaldehyde is distilled in
distillation column to get acetaldehyde.

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Production of acetaldehyde

Here, ethyl alcohol dehydrogenation is selected for the production of acetaldehyde. Because, in
this process, hydrogen is taken out as a by-product which can be used elsewhere or which can
be used to generate heat. In dehydrogenation process more conversion-taking place compared
to other processes. The dehydrogenation catalyst has a life of several years but requires
periodic reactivation. In dehydrogenation process, number of products is less, so separation of
acetaldehyde from other product is not a difficult problem.

Material and Energy Balance

Notations used
Msteam = Mass flow rate of steam.
∆Hsteam = enthalpy of steam.
E = Mass flow rate of ethanol.
A = Mass flow rate of acetaldehyde.
H = Mass flow rate of hydrogen.
Cp = specific heat capacity.
λ = Latent heat of vaporization.

Assumptions :
Let us assume an annual production of acetaldehyde 54000 tons per year.
It is assumed that the plant works for 300 days in a year.
Amount of acetaldehyde produced per day =180 tons per day

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Basis:One hour of operation.

Amount of acetaldehyde to be produced = 180 TPD = 7500kg/h.

Molecular weight of ethanol = 46 kg/kmol.

Molecular weight of acetaldehyde = 44 kg/kmol.
Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2 kg/kmol.
Therefore, amount of acetaldehyde to be produced = 170.45kmol/h.
Let conversion be 90%.

Taking into account the losses let, the acetaldehyde produced to be some extra.

Let acetaldehyde to be produced = 8000 kg/h.

Amount of ethanol required for 100% conversion = 8363.63 kg/h.

Therefore, ethanol required for 90% conversion = 9292.92 kg/h.

Temperature dependency of Cpwith temperature is given as

T
Cp T 2 −T 20 T 3−T 30 T 4−T 40 T 5−T 50
∫R dT = A ( T −T 0) +B +C + D + E
T0
2 3 4 5

Values of constants for calculating Cp

Component A B*103 C*106 D*10-5

Ethanol 3.518 20.001 -6.002 0

Hydrogen 3.249 0.422 0 0.083

Acetaldehyde 1.693 17.978 -6.158 0

Water 3.470 1.450 0 0.121

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Values of CP for different temperature range (kcal/Kg.C)

25 to
-25 to 40 310
78.4 to 100 100 to 200 to 40 to
Component o
C 78.4 o
C 200 oC 310 oC 232.36 oC o
C
o
C

Ethanol 0.616 0.587 0.4382 0.471 0.539 0.5415 0.549

Acetaldehyd ----- ------ ----- ------

0.347 0.417 0.528
e
----- ----- ----- ------
Hydrogen 3.399 2.485 2.485
--- ------ ----- ----- ------ ------ ----
Water

Vaporizer

above figure,
Ethanol liquid inlet temperature = Ti=25oC.
Ethanol leaves as superheated steam at 1000C = To
Heating fluid is assumed to be saturated steam here to provide sufficient temperature gradient

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it is taken to be at about 3 atmospheric pressure. This pressure it condenses at 133.89 0 C and

because process streams are normally available at this pressure.
Condensing temperature of water = 133.890 C.
From steam table enthalpy of steam at this temperature = ∆H steam =514.9kcal/kg.
Boiling point of ethanol = Tb = 78.40 C.
Latent heat of vaporization of ethanol= λ ethanol = 200.6 kcal/kg
From heat balance we have,
Msteam = E*[Cpi*(Tb-Ti) +λ ethanol +Cpo*(To-Tb)]
Msteam = 9292.92* [0.5876 * (78.4 – 25) + 200.6 + 0.4382 * (100 – 78.4)]/514.9
= 4357.56 kg.

Mass Balance Table for Vaporizer

Componen Input Feed Stream

Output Feed Stream (Kg)
t (Kg)

Ethanol 9292.92 9292.92

Water 4357.56 4357.56

Total 13650.48 13650.48

For Water
Heat in =¿ = 2714324.124kcal
Where To=298.15 K and TD=406.15K
Heat out=¿2714324.124 kcal

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For ethanol (Tref= 298.15 K)

Heat in= 0 kcal Heat out=470616.48kcal
Energy Balance Table for Vaporizer

Componen
StreamIn kcal Stream Out kcal
t

Ethanol 0 2243710.112

Water 2714324.124 470616.48

Total 2714324.124 2714326.592

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References:-
1.https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-acetaldehyde-
market
2.https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/acetaldehyde-market-
113225129.html

3.Wang Y, Sun J (2014) Recent Advances in Catalytic Conversion of Ethanol to Chemicals. Appl
Catal 4: 1078-1090.
4.https://www.lookchem.com/Chempedia/Chemical-Technology/Organic-Chemical-
Technology/7521.html
5.Jiang-Jen Lin and John F. Knifton, Acetaldehyde production from synthesis gas, Publication
US4525281

6.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actaldehyde
7.www.marketresearchfuture.com

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