Unit 1: Cell Biology

Year Paper 2 Questions

19SL Describe the functions of proteins in cell membranes. (4)

Outline four types of membrane transport, including their use of

19HL
energy (4)

Outline the functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi

19HL
apparatus (3)
17HL Outline four different functions of membrane proteins. (4)
17HL Outline the cell cycle. (4)
Draw a labelled diagram that shows the positions of proteins
16HL
within
Draw athe cell membrane.
labelled diagram of(3)a eukaryotic plant cell as seen in an
16HL
electron micrograph. (4)
15SL Outline the stages of the cell cycle. (5)
15HL Describe the process of endocytosis. (5)
15SL Draw a labelled diagram of a prokaryotic cell. (5)
Explain how the properties of phospholipids help to maintain the
15SL
structure
Outline theof role
cell of
membranes.
proteins in(8)
active and passive transport of
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molecules
Draw a labelled diagram to show(5)the structure of the plasma
through membranes.
15HL Following
membrane.germination
(5) of seeds, plants undergo a rapid increase in
15HL the number of cells. Describe stages in the cell cycle that result in
Draw a labelled
this increase diagram
of cells. (7) to show the molecular structure of a
13SL
membrane. (4)
Draw a labelled diagram of Escherichia coli as an example of a
13HL
prokaryote.
membrane. (4) (4)
13HL State the functions of the following organelles of a eukaryotic
13SL animal cell: lysosome, Golgi apparatus, free ribosomes, plasma
membrane, rough endoplasmic reticulum. (5)
13HL Draw a labelled diagram of a prokaryotic cell. (4)
Describe four different types of transport of substances across a
13HL Draw a labelled
membrane. (4) diagram of the ultrastructure of a prokaryote. (4)
12HL
Describe the characteristics of stem cells that make them
12HL
potentially useful in medicine. (5)
11SL Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of membranes. (6)
Explain passive transport and active transport across membranes.
11SL
(8)
11HL Outline the various stages of the cell cycle. (4)
10SL Describe the events that occur during mitosis. (9)

10SL Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (5)

Compare simple diffusion with facilitated diffusion as mechanisms

10SL
to transport solutes across membranes. (5)
10SL Describe the process of endocytosis. (5)

10HL Outline, with an example, the process of exocytosis. (5)

Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.
Discuss alternative models of membrane structure including
evidence for or against each model. (8)
Mark-scheme Answers

a. facilitated diffusion by channel proteins

b. active transport by protein pumps OR protein pumps eg sodium-potassium
c. cell recognition by glycoproteins/protein receptors
d. communication/receptors for hormones/signal molecules
e. cell adhesion
f. allow up to one additional mark for AHL material

a. simple diffusion is passive movement of molecules/ions along a concentration gradient

b. facilitated diffusion is passive movement of molecules/ions along a concentration gradient
through a protein channel «without use of energy»
c. osmosis is the passage of water through a membrane from lower solute concentration to higher
d. active transport is movement of molecules/ions against the concentration gradient «through
membrane pumps» with the use of ATP/energy
e. endocytosis is the infolding of membrane/formation of vesicles to bring molecules into cell with
use of energy OR exocytosis is the infolding of membrane/formation of vesicles to release
molecules from cell with use of energy
f. chemiosmosis occurs when protons diffuse through ATP synthase «in membrane» to produce
ATP

b. proteins from RER for secretion/export/use outside cell/for lysosomes

c.
c. Golgi
channelsalters/modifies
«for passive proteins/example of modification
transport» / facilitated diffusion
d.
d. vesicles
pumps / budded
active off Golgi
transport transport proteins «to plasma membrane»
c. cytokinesis occurs after mitosis
e.
d. cell adhesion
interphase is the metabolically active phase between cell divisions OWTTE
membrane
e. the interphase consists of the S phase, G1 and G2
Accept inner line of protein
Extrinsic/peripheral wall as membrane
labelled andif shown
clearlyon labelled.
membrane surface/not embedded in bilayer
Nuclear membrane/nucleus
are replicated; shown with double membrane and nuclear pores
Vacuole
d. «membrane»/tonoplast shown as a single continuous line
d. S/synthesis phase when
membrane pinches the DNA
off /seals backreplicates;
on itself/edges fuse;
e.
e. mitosis is when formed;
vesicle/vacuole nucleus/genetic material divides;
membrane;
f.
e. inside of plasma membrane
(70S) ribosomes – drawn asbecomes outside
a small circle or of
darkvesicle
dot; membrane / converse;
f. pili – hair like structures / flagellum – shown to be longer than any pili;
d. aquaporins
A suitable (specific
annotated integralmay
diagram membrane proteins)
incorporate all or facilitate the above
many of the movement of water
points. Award 5 marks
molecules/osmosis;
c.
e. integral/intrinsic
some proteins (forprotein – embedded
facilitated diffusion)in are
the specific
phospholipid bilayer;
to molecule/ions;
d. protein channel
centromeres/chromosomes; – integral protein showing clear channel/pore;
f. anaphase:
integral chromatids
protein; (embeddedmove in along microtubules/spindle
the phospholipid bilayer) fibres move chromatids toward opposite
protein channel/channel
flagellum/flagella; protein;
(thicker (integral
and longer thanprotein
pili andshowing
embeddedclearinchannel/pore)
cell wall)
70S ribosomes; (shown as small dots)
integral protein; (embedded in the phospholipid bilayer)
free ribosomes:
c. site of synthesis of proteins (released to cytoplasm);
innermost wall line)
b.
d. (passive
ribosomes transport
(70S) – by)
drawn facilitated
as smalldiffusion
discrete through
dots; (specific) channel proteins;
c. osmosis of water via aquaporins/from area of low solute concentration to area of high solute
nucleoid/(region
concentration; containing) naked DNA (distinguished from rest of cytoplasm)
ribosome;
(stem cells)(dots in cytoplasm) / have not yet differentiated/specialized;
are undifferentiated
integral/intrinsic protein – embedded
can differentiate/specialize in differentinways
the phospholipid bilayer;
/ are pluripotent/totipotent;
protein channel – integral protein showing clear channel/pore;
active transport/formation
peripheral/extrinsic proteinof– vesicles require energy;
on the surface;
in the form of ATP;
G2 the chromosomes begin condensing/preparation for cell division;
G1 , S and G2 line
chromosomes makeupup
at interphase;
equator in metaphase;
centromeres divide / (paired) chromatids separate / chromosomes separate into two chromatids in
(In the table below, information from both boxes on same line is needed for 1 mark.)

Differences [max 4]:

Similarities: (Award 1 mark for any combination of two different items [max 2])
cytoplasm/plasma membrane/contains DNA/contains ribosomes
endocytosis occurs when a membrane encloses a target particle;
fluidity of membrane permits movement of membrane;
membrane sinks inwardly/forms pit/invaginates to enclose particle;
membrane seals back on itself / edges fuse;
one membrane layer / two phospholipid layers enclose particle making vesicle;
inner phospholipid layer of (original) membrane becomes outer phospholipid layer of vesicle
membrane;
outer phospholipid layer of (original) membrane becomes inner phospholipid layer of vesicle
membrane;
vesicle breaks away from membrane/moves into cytoplasm;
changes in membrane shape require energy;
specific example of endocytosis (e.g. pinocytosis, phagocytosis);
Accept any of the above points in an annotated diagram.
material released/expelled from the cell;
membrane flattens;
mitochondria/chloroplasts have naked
name of example e.g. exocytosis DNA;
of neurotransmitter / exocrine secretion/endocrine secretion /
Davson–Danielli model proposed
mitochondria/chloroplasts phospholipid
divide/carry bilayer coated with protein molecules
out fission;
on both surfaces ✔
evidence from electron microscopy «supported Davson–Danielli model» ✔
Unit 2: Molecular Biology

19SL Outline the stages in the production of mRNA by transcription (4)

Draw a fully labelled graph of the action spectrum for

19HL
photosynthesis

19HL Distinguish between the structures of DNA and RNA (3)

19HL Draw the structure of a dipeptide (3)

Explain how hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties contribute to

19HL
the arrangement of molecules in a membrane (7)

18SL Explain the process of photosynthesis (8)

 Outline how translation depends on complementary base pairing.
17SL
(3)

Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including the role

17SL
of Taq DNA polymerase. (4)

Draw a molecular diagram of an amino acid to show its general

17SL
structure. (3)
17SL Describe the structure and function of starch in plants. (3)

17SL Outline the production of carbohydrates in photosynthesis. (4)

17HL Distinguish between anabolism, catabolism and metabolism. (3)

17HL Describe the functioning of immunoglobulins. (3)

 Draw molecular diagrams to show the condensation reaction
17HL
between two amino acids to form a dipeptide. (4)

Producers extract phosphates and nitrates from soil. Outline how

16SL
these ions are used in the synthesis of organic molecules. (3)

Outline the process of gas exchange necessary for aerobic

16SL
respiration in a unicellular eukaryotic organism. (3)

16HL Outline the action of enzymes. (4)

 Draw a labelled diagram of a section of DNA showing four
15SL
nucleotides. (5)

15SL Explain the process of translation in cells. (8)

Outline the production of a dipeptide by a condensation reaction,

15SL
showing the structure of a generalized dipeptide. (5)

15HL Describe the importance of water to living organisms. (5)

 Describe the genetic code and its relationship to polypeptides and
15SL
proteins. (5)
15HL Outline two factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. (5)
Draw an annotated graph of the effects of light intensity on the rate
15HL
of photosynthesis.
Draw (4) showing the structure of three water
a labelled diagram
15SL-
molecules and how they interact. (5)
13SL Describe how the rate of photosynthesis can be measured. (6)
Some proteins in membranes act as enzymes. Outline enzyme-
13SL
substrate specificity.
Water is essential (6) on Earth. Outline two properties of water
to life
13HL
that are important
Outline the role offor living organisms.
condensation (4)
and hydrolysis in the relationship
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between amino acids and polypeptides (4)
Describe the properties of water that make it a useful component
13SL
of blood.
lack. (4)future hemophilia could be treated using clotting
In the
13HL
factors
Outlinesynthesized
the differenceby in
genetically modified bacteria. Outline the 
absorption of red, blue and green light by
13SL
chlorophyll. (4)
Explain the effect of changes of pH, substrate concentration and
13SL
temperature on enzyme activity. (8)

Distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in

13SL
eukaryotes. (4)

13HL Outline transcription in prokaryotes. (6)

Describe four properties of water that are due to hydrogen bonding
13HL
and polarity.
Outline (4) of condensation and hydrolysis in metabolic
the role
13SL Metabolic reactions are catalysed by
reactions involving carbohydrates. (4)enzymes. Explain how
12SL enzymes catalyse reactions and how a change in pH could affect
State the role of four named minerals needed by living organisms.
this. (8)
12HL
(4)
Outline how the structure of the ribosome is related to its function
12HL
in translation.
Outline, (6)
with examples, the types of carbohydrate found in living
12HL
organisms. (4)
12HL Describe the importance of hydrolysis in digestion. (6)
12HL Explain the role of limiting factors in photosynthesis. (8)
12HL List the general functions of non-membrane proteins. (4)
Outline how three properties of water enhance its use by living
12HL
organisms.
Outline the (6)role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship
11SL Explain
between the relationship
fatty between
acids, glycerol and the properties (6)
triglycerides. of water and its
11SL uses in living organisms as a coolant, a medium for metabolic
Respiration
reactions andand other processes
a transport medium. in (8)
cells involve enzymes. Explain
11SL Many people
the factors thatcannot digestenzymes.
can affect lactose and(8) benefit from a diet
11HL containing no lactose. Outline the production of lactose-free milk.
Outline the effect of temperature and substrate concentration on
(6)
11HL
the activity
Explain whyofDNA enzymes.
must (4)
be replicated before mitosis and the role
10SL
of helicase
Explain how inthe
DNA replication.
base sequence of(4)DNA is conserved during
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replication. (5)
Outline the role of hydrolysis in the relationships between
10SL
monosaccharides,
Describe the use ofdisaccharides
biotechnology andinpolysaccharides.
the production of(4)
lactose-free
10SL
milk. (6)
10SL Explain the importance of enzymes to human digestion. (8)

Most of the DNA of a human cell is contained in the nucleus.

10HL Distinguish between unique and highly repetitive sequences in
nuclear DNA. (5)

Draw a labelled diagram to show four DNA nucleotides, each with

10HL
a different base, linked together in two strands. (5)
10HL Outline the structure of a ribosome. (4)
Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins with reference
10HL
to one example
Describe of each protein
the importance type. (6)in digestion.
of hydrolysis
extra
Distinguish between anabolism, catabolism and metabolism.
extra
a. DNA is unwound/strands are separated «by RNA polymerase»
b. new nucleotides attached to template strand «by RNA polymerase»
c. complementary base pairing/base pairing with an example
OR adenine with thymine/uracil with adenine/cytosine with guanine/guanine with cytosine
d. mRNA detaches from template
e. DNA rewinds

a. axes correctly labelled «wavelength and rate of photosynthesis»

b. 400 and 700 nm as limits
c. correct shape of curve involving two peaks at the correct places, broader in the blue-violet range
not starting at zero and a narrower peak in the orange-red range with the trough in the green range
that does not reach zero
d. peaks of activity at 430 nm AND at 660 nm
e. peaks indicated as «violet» blue light AND peak indicated as «orange» red light
a. two amino acids, one with NH2/NH3 3 + end and one with COOH/COO– end
b. peptide bond between C=0 and N—H correctly drawn
c. «chiral» C with H and R group on each amino acid
d. peptide bond labelled/clearly indicated between C terminal of one amino acid and N terminal of
the second amino acid

a. hydrophilic is attracted to/soluble in water and hydrophobic not attracted/insoluble

b. hydrophilic phosphate/head and hydrophobic hydrocarbon/tail in phospholipids
c. phospholipid bilayer in water/in membranes
d. hydrophilic heads «of phospholipids» face outwards/are on surface
e. hydrophobic tails «of phospholipids» face inwards/are inside/are in core
f. cholesterol is «mainly» hydrophobic/amphipathic so is located among phospholipids/in
hydrophobic region of membrane
g. some amino acids are hydrophilic and some are hydrophobic
h. hydrophobic «amino acids/regions of» proteins in phospholipid bilayer «core»
i. hydrophilic «amino acids/regions of» proteins are on the membrane surface
j. integral proteins are embedded in membranes due to hydrophobic properties/region
OR transmembrane proteins have a hydrophobic middle region and hydrophilic ends
k. peripheral proteins on are on the membrane surface/among phosphate heads due to being
«entirely» hydrophilic OR «carbohydrate» part of glycoproteins is hydrophilic so is outside the
membrane
l. pore of channel proteins is hydrophilic

a. autotrophs perform photosynthesis

b. carbon dioxide and water are the reactants/raw materials required for «photosynthesis»
c. light splits water molecules/causes photolysis
d. «photolysis» releases oxygen as a «waste» product
e. light energy is converted into chemical energy
f. «photosynthesis» produces organic compounds/glucose/carbohydrates
g. photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
h. chlorophyll «photosynthetic pigment» absorbs light
i. different pigments absorb different wavelengths «of light»
j. chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light/ends of the spectrum
k. carbon dioxide concentration/temperature/light intensity are limiting factors
a. translation converts a sequence of mRNA nucleotides/codons to a sequence of amino
acids/polypeptide/protein
b. «triplets of» nucleotides/bases on «activated» tRNAs pair with complementary «triplets of»
nucleotides/bases on mRNA / vice versa
c. base pairing occurs when adenine/A pairs with uracil/U and guanine/G pairs with cytosine/C
d. specific amino acids are attached to specific of tRNA
e. mRNA has codons AND tRNA has anticodons

a. PCR is a process by which a small sample of DNA can be amplified/copied many times

b. PCR involves repeated cycling through high and lower temperatures. This promotes melting and
annealing of DNA strands

c. High temperatures break bonds between strands of DNA/to separate the double-stranded DNA

d. Taq DNA polymerase can withstand high temperatures without denaturing. They form new
double stranded DNA by adding complementary bases/nucleotides

a. COO– or COOH group at one end

b. NH2 or NH3+ at the other
c. CH in middle with H or R group attached
Structure:

a. «starch» is a polysaccharide/is composed of glucose molecules

b. contains amylose which is a linear/helical molecule
c. contains amylopectin which is a branched molecule

Function:

d. storage of glucose/energy in plants

e. storage form that does not draw water

a. light is absorbed by chlorophyll

OR
chlorophyll absorbs more red and blue light
b. «absorbed» light energy is converted to chemical energy
c. some of the energy is used for production of ATP
d. water molecules are split/photolysis
e. produces oxygen «as waste product»/hydrogen/NADPH
f. plants absorb/fix CO2 «from air or water»
g. ATP/energy is needed to produce carbohydrates/starch

a. metabolism is all enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell/organism/is anabolism plus catabolism

b. anabolism is synthesis of polymers/complex/larger molecules/larger substances «from smaller
molecules/monomers»
c. catabolism is breaking down «complex» molecules/substances «into simpler/smaller ones/into
monomers»

a. «immumoglobulins are/function as» antibodies

b. variety of binding sites / variable regions for binding
c. specific to antigens on bacteria/viruses/pathogens
d. constant region aids destruction of the bacteria/virus/pathogen
e. attracts phagocytes/macrophages to engulf pathogen
f. bursting pathogen cells/agglutination/neutralizing toxins/other example of the action of antibodies

Award marks for an annotated diagram.

a. each amino acid with a COO–/COOH group at one end AND a NH2/NH3+ at the other
Both needed.
mp a requires the double bond to be shown between the C and O.
b. CH in middle with H or R group attached
c. peptide bond correctly drawn between N and C=0
d. COO–/COOH group at one end of dipeptide AND NH2/NH3+ at other end
Both needed.
e. loss of water

a. by photosynthesis / using energy from light

b. attached to carbon compounds
c. phosphates used to make phospholipids/nucleotides/nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP
Other phosphorus-containing metabolites are acceptable if verified.
d. nitrates are used to make amino acids/proteins/nucleotides/nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP
Other nitrogen-containing metabolites are acceptable if verified.
e. transported from roots to leaves (in xylem)

Oxygen must be taken up AND carbon dioxide must be released (Both needed)
Gases pass through a cell membrane by simple diffusion
Require a concentration gradient
OR
pass from high concentration to low concentration
Without requiring energy
OR
passive process
Large SA: vol ratio

Catalyse/speed up reactions
Substrate-specific
Lower the activation energy «of a chemical reaction»
Substrate collides with/binds to active site
Enzyme–substrate complex formed
OR
transition state formed
OR
bonds in substrate weakened
a. translation is the conversion of base sequence on mRNA into an amino acid sequence / OWTTE;
b. messenger/mRNA attaches to ribosome (small unit);
c. many ribosome/polyribosomes bind to same mRNA;
d. (mRNA) carries codons/triplet of bases each coding for one amino acid;
e. transfer/tRNA each have specific anticodon;
f. tRNA carries specific amino acid;
g. tRNA anticodon binds to codon in the mRNA;
h. to corresponding triplet base/codon by complementary base pairing / OWTTE;
i. a second tRNA (anticodon) binds to next codon;
j. two amino acids bind together / peptide linkage is formed;
k. first tRNA detaches;
l. ribosome moves along mRNA;
m. another tRNA binds to next codon;
n. continues until stop codon is reached;
o. stop codon has no corresponding tRNA (anticodon)/amino acid/causes release of polypeptide;

a. condensation is joining together two amino acids to form a dipeptide;

b. carboxyl/COOH group of one amino acid reacts with amine/NH2 group of another / diagrams of
two (generalized) amino acids correctly shown;
c. water/H2O is eliminated;
d. diagram of dipeptide correctly shown;
e. peptide/covalent bond is produced / peptide bond correctly labelled;
f. occurs at the ribosomes;

e. medium for transport in blood/xylem/phloem;

f. medium for metabolic reactions / (metabolic) reactions happen dissolved in water;
g. surface tension due to cohesion allows organisms to live on water surface;
c. each codon is code for one amino acid;
d.
h. some
until acodons
plateauare (start or)atstop
is reached codons;
higher CO2 levels/when another factor is limiting;
e. DNA is transcribed into mRNA by base-pair matching/complementary
i. CO2 needed for light independent reactions/Calvin cycle/carboxylationbase pairing;
of RuBP/production of
c. drawn with plateau
glycerate phosphate; formed at high light intensities;
d. plateau
c. three annotated
water moleculesas maximum rate of photosynthesis;
bonded together with dashed/dotted lines between O on one molecule and
measure uptake of CO2;
H on another;
example of method; (eg method of measuring (aquatic) pH changes/shift per unit time)
active
measure siteincrease
on enzyme binds to substrate;
in biomass;
substrate
high heat capacity / largecomplementary/fit
and active site amounts of energytogether;
needed to change temperature;
(covalent)
energy needed bondtobetween carboxylbonds;
break hydrogen end of one amino acid molecule and amino end of other;
many amino acids joined by condensation to form polypeptide;
d. (water is) fluid/liquid at body temperature;
d. restrictionofenzyme/endonuclease
e. example transported material (eg used to open plasmid/cut
nutrients/metabolic DNA;
wastes/gases/hormones/blood cells or
e. complementary bases/sticky ends on gene and plasmid/link gene to plasmid;
b. greatest
f. sealed absorption
using ligase; in blue light;
c. red light absorbed in high increases,
f. as substrate concentration amounts; the collisions between substrate and enzyme increase;
g. up to a maximal level of action / reaching a plateau;

e. RNA nucleotides/nucleoside triphosphates pair with complementary bases on DNA;

latent heat of
f. Adenine to evaporation;
Thymine, Cytosine to Guanine, and Uracil to Adenine; (do not accept letters alone)
d. water molecules on surface resistant to forces because of surface tension;
example;
e. water is(eg.
mosttwo glucose
dense at 4°Cfrom
duemaltose)
to more regular hydrogen bonding;
hydrolysis is the breaking
increase/decrease down of
from optimum pHmolecules
decreaseswith the addition of water;
activity;
phosphorus
change in pH– changes
formation of nucleic acidsof/ active
structure/charge ATP / site;
GTP / NADP / phospholipids;
iron – formation of hemoglobin / transport of oxygen;
asodium
small subunit
– nerve and a large
impulse one;
/ sodium-potassium pump / osmoregulation;
(three) binding sites for tRNA
example of monosaccharide (e.g. on/in large subunit;
glucose/ribose/galactose/fructose);
example of disaccharide
small molecules (e.g. maltose/lactose/sucrose);
can be joined to form the organism’s (unique) macromolecules;
light intensity
hydrolysis affects
is aided bythe light-dependent reactions/production of ATP/NADPH;
enzymes;
temperature limiting at low and high temperatures;
transport;
optimum temperature with lower rates above and below plateau / graph to show this;
defence / immunity;
high specific heat capacity causes it to maintain environmental temperatures;
with release
low density as of ice
glycerol;
forms insulation of lakes allowing life below;
accurate reference
condensation: to specific heat;
[3 max]
each enzyme has an optimum
sweating/evaporation pH / enzymes have optimal pHs;
cools organisms;
increase or decrease from optimum
which is lacking in people with lactose pH intolerance;
decreases rate of reaction/activity;
extreme pH alters/denatures the tertiary/3D
lactose-free milk is sweeter than milk containing protein/enzyme
lactose; structure;
temperatures;
lactase produced by small intestine / produced by yeast sometimes found in milk;
two copies the
increasing of each chromosome/DNA
substrate molecule/chromatid
concentration increases the enzymeneeded;
activity/more enzyme-substrate
helicase unwinds the DNA/double helix;
nucleotides are assembled on/attached to each single/template strand;
to
by allow the strandsbase
complementary to be separated;
hydrolysis is the additionpairing;
of water to split a molecule into smaller fragments;
adenine
–OH andwith thymine
–H are addedand cytosine
to the with guanine / A with T and C with G;
fragments;
adisaccharides
commercial aremarket exists for lactose-free
split/digested into two singlemilk / lactose-free milk is example of biotechnology’s
sugars;
economic impact;
enzymatic digestion is a sequential process e.g. from protein to peptide to amino acid;
specific location for each reaction with specific conditions/environments e.g. stomach high acidity;

satellite DNA is repetitive;

repetitive sequences are used for profiling;
prokaryotes do not (usually) contain repetitive sequences

labelled at least once;

backbone labelled as covalent bond between nucleotides correctly shown as 3' to 5' bond;
mRNA
two basebinding site onbysmall
pairs linked subunit;
hydrogen bonds drawn as dotted lines and labelled;
three tRNA binding sites / A, P and E tRNA binding
globular proteins used for catalysis/transport/other sites; role of globular protein;
specific
another rolerequires
Hydrolysis of globular
waterprotein;
and is aided by enzymes. Through hydrolysis, polysaccharides can be
hydrolysed to monosaccharide and disaccharides,
Anabolism is the synthesis of polymers proteins
or complex, can be hydrolysed
large molecules into amino
from monomers acids and
or small,
simple molecules.
A table format is not required but clear distinctions must be
apparent.
Unit 3: Genetics

Explain the cause of sickle cell anemia and how this disease
19HL
affects humans (8)

Mendel found the same pattern of inheritance in all the crosses that
19HL he performed. Outline, with examples, different types of
inheritance that produce non-Mendelian ratios (4)

18SL Explain the process of genetically modifying bacteria. (8)

 Many diseases are caused by bacteria and other pathogens.
18SL Explain, using examples, how other factors can lead to disease in
humans. (7)

Explain benefits and risks of using genetically modified crops for

17SL
the environment and also for human health. (8)
 Discuss the role of genes and chromosomes in determining
17HL individual and shared character features of the members of a
species. (7)

17HL Outline the process of speciation. (4)

 Draw a labelled diagram of the formation of a chiasma by crossing
17HL
over. (3)

Many genetic diseases are due to recessive alleles of autosomal

genes that code for an enzyme. Using a Punnett grid, explain how
16HL
parents who do not show signs of such a disease can produce a
child with the disease. (4)
15HL Outline a technique used for gene transfer. (5)

15SL Explain the inheritance of colour blindness. (8)

Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity.

15SL
(5)
 Meiosis in humans produces cells that participate in fertilization.
15SL
Outline the processes involved in meiosis. (5)

Following fertilization, cells in the developing embryo

15SL differentiate. Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated
animal cells. (5)
15SL Discuss ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

Outline the processes that occur during the first division of

15SL
meiosis. (6)

15HL Outline outcomes of the human genome project. (4)

Using a named example of a genetically modified crop, discuss the
15HL
specific ethical issues
oxygen.Explain of its use. (6)
the consequence of the mutation causing sickle-
13HL
cell anemia in relation to the processes
Define codominant allele, recessive allele, of transcription
locus and sexandlinkage.
13SL ABO blood groups are inherited from parents, but it is possible for
(4)
13SL a child to have a different blood group from either parent. Outline
how this can happen using a Punnett grid. (6)
 Explain how males inherit hemophilia and how females can
13SL
become carriers
Outline the fornamed
use of the condition.
enzymes in gene transfer using plasmids.
13SL
(6)
lack. In the future hemophilia could be treated using clotting
13HL
factors
Explainsynthesized
how males by genetically
inherit modified bacteria. Outline the 
hemophilia and how females can
13HL
become carriers for the condition. (8)
oxygen.Explain the consequence of the mutation causing sickle-
13HL
cell anemia
species in relation
by one exampletoofthe processes
genetic of transcription
modification. (8) and
12SL
Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes in humans.
12HL
(4)
Describe the inheritance of hemophilia including an example using
12HL
aExplain
Punnetthowgrid. (6) results in an effectively infinite genetic
meiosis
12HL
variety
Outline of
thegametes. (8) of a named sex-linked condition in
inheritance
12HL
humans. (5)
12HL Explain the use of karyotyping in human genetics. (8)
11SL Define the terms chromosome, gene, allele and genome. (4)
11HL Describe the causes of Down syndrome. (5)
11HL Describe how human skin colour is determined genetically.(5)
11HL Explain the causes of sickle-cell anemia. (8)
10HL Outline the formation of chiasmata during crossing over. (5)
10HL Explain how an error in meiosis can lead to Down syndrome. (8)
a. caused by a single nucleotide/base substitution mutation/GAG to GTG
b. «mutation of» a gene of β-globin/a subunit of hemoglobin
c. mRNA copies the mutation of DNA and substitutes an amino acid in hemoglobin «subunit»
d. glutamic acid is substituted by valine
e. sickle cell anemia involves distorted hemoglobin protein/HbS
f. «distorted HbS causes» distortion/sickling/shape change of red blood cells
g. «distorted/sickled red blood cells» block capillaries/blood flow
h. HbS/sickled red blood cells cannot carry enough oxygen «for the body»/leads to fatigue
i. low oxygen concentration seriously affects structure of HbS
j. homozygous «HbS/HbS» state causes severe anemia/death at low oxygen concentrations
k. heterozygous state has less anemia/minor effects/less effect of structure of hemoglobin OR
heterozygous state only affected at high altitude/extreme exercise/low levels of oxygen
l. «heterozygous state» provides protection against malaria parasite/selective advantage in malaria
areas

a. some traits may involve many genes/be polygenic eg: height, skin colour «correct example
required»
b. linked genes/alleles of different genes on same chromosome
c. «small numbers of» recombinant phenotypes due to crossing over «between linked genes»
d. co-dominance of specific alleles/intermediate forms eg: pink flowers «from red and white
ones»/blood groups «correct example required»
e. sex-linked effects eg: colour blindness «correct example required»
f. environmental influence on inheritance/epigenetics/methylation
g. any other example of non-Mendelien inheritance with a specific example

a. genetic modification carried out by gene transfer between species

b. genes transferred from one organism to another produce the same protein/amino acid sequence
c. due to universality of genetic code organisms use same codons of mRNA to code for specific
amino acids
d. mRNA for required gene extracted/identified
e. DNA copies of mRNA made using reverse transcriptase
f. PCR used (to amplify DNA to be transferred)
g. genes/DNA transferred from one species to another using a vector
h. plasmid acts as vector to transfer genes to bacteria/E. coli
i. plasmid cut open at specific base sequences using restriction endonuclease
OR plasmid cut to produce blunt ends then extra cytosine/C nucleotides added
OR sticky ends made by adding extra guanine/G nucleotides
OR mention of sticky ends if not gained already
j. cut plasmids mixed with DNA copies stick together (due to complementary base pairing)
k. DNA ligase makes sugar-phosphate bonds to link nucleotides of gene with those of plasmid
l. bacteria that take up plasmid are identified
n. example – eg: as production of human insulin using E. coli bacteria
For any non-pathogenic disease being addressed, look for the following components
● name of disease/condition.
● factor/category e.g.: genetic, lifestyle, environmental, psychological, multi-factoral.
● description/symptoms of disease.
● cause of disease.

At least 2 of these qualities must be present to earn any marks for a disease or category/factor
Award 4 MAX if only one condition is explained.

Cystic Fibrosis
genetic
multiple lung infections/sticky mucus allows opportunistic bacterial infections of lungs /
patients lack lipases/cannot digest fat/do not “thrive”
recessive (autosomal) allele / homozygous recessive subjects display cystic fibrosis
phenotype / chloride channels are faulty

Rickets
environmental / lifestyle / nutritional
bones are soft/do not calcify
lack of vitamin D

i. GMOs (encourage monoculture which) reduces biodiversity

j. GM crops encourage overuse of herbicides
Genes

a. mutation changes genes/causes genetic differences

b. genes can have more than one allele/multiple alleles
alleles are different forms/versions of a gene
c. different alleles «of a gene» give different characters
variation in alleles between individuals
d. eye colour/other example of «alleles of» a gene affecting a character
e. alleles may be dominant or recessive
dominant alleles determine trait even if recessive allele is present
f. both alleles influence the characteristic with codominance
reference to polygenic inheritance
g. all members of a species are genetically similar/have shared genes
certain genes expressed in all members of a species
h. reference to epigenetics/methylation/acetylation / not all genes are expressed «in an individual»
i. genes are inherited from parents/passed on to offspring/passed from generation to generation

Chromosomes

j. same locus/same position of genes

same sequence of genes/same genes on each chromosome «in a species»
k. same number of chromosomes «in a species»/all humans have 46 chromosomes/differences in
chromosome number between species
l. some individuals have an extra chromosome/Down syndrome/other example of aneuploidy
polyploidy divides a species/creates a new species
m. X and Y/sex chromosomes determine the sex/gender of an individual
n. meiosis/independent assortment/fertilization/sexual reproduction give new combinations «of
chromosomes/genes»

a. speciation is the splitting of a species «into two species»

b. reproductive isolation/lack of interbreeding
c. isolation due to geography/«reproductive» behavior/«reproductive» timing
d. polyploidy can cause isolation
e. gene pools separated
f. differences in/disruptive selection cause traits/gene pools to change/diverge
g. gradualism / speciation/changes accumulating over long periods
h. punctuated equilibrium / speciation/changes over a short time period
a. «crossing over/chiasmata shown between» homologous chromosomes
b. centromere drawn and labelled
c. single strand break «SSB»/DNA cut between homologous chromosomes
d. non-sister chromatids labelled
sister chromatids labelled
e. chiasma between homologous chromosomes labelled «shown forming after SSB»
Homologous chromosomes must be labelled and correctly drawn.

Key or text giving alleles with upper case for dominant allele and lower case for recessive
allele/allele causing disease

Reject key showing a sex linked gene such as hemophilia.

Reject if X or Y chromosomes are shown with the alleles.
Accept Aa or any other upper and lower case letters.

Punnett grid showing that both parents can pass on either a dominant or a recessive allele in their
gamete

For example row and column headings with A and a.

This mark can be awarded if X or Y chromosomes are shown but each parent has one recessive and
one dominant allele as if for autosomal inheritance.

Four possible genotypes for child correctly shown on grid

AA, Aa, aA and aa for example.

This mark can be awarded if X or Y chromosomes are shown but the genotypes are correct for
autosomal inheritance.

Double/homozygous recessive shown having the disease

Cannot be awarded with sex linkage.

25 % or 0.25 or 1/4 chance of inheriting the disease

This mark can be awarded if X or Y chromosomes are shown but the ratio is correct for autosomal
inheritance.
a. plasmid used for gene transfer/removed from bacteria;
b. plasmid is a small/extra circle of DNA;
c. restriction enzymes/endonucleases cut/cleave DNA (of plasmid);
d. each restriction enzyme cuts at specific base sequence/creates sticky ends;
e. same (restriction) enzyme used to cut DNA with (desired) gene;
f. DNA/gene can be added to the open plasmid/sticky ends join gene and plasmid;
g. (DNA) ligase used to splice/join together/seal nicks;
h. recombinant DNA/plasmids inserted into host cell/bacterium/yeast;

a. colour blindness caused by recessive allele / colour blindness is recessive;

b. gene located on X chromosome/sex-linked;
c. Xb is allele for colour blindness and XB is allele for normal colour vision/dominant allele;
d. male has one X and one Y chromosome;
e. male has only one copy of gene(s) located on X chromosome
f. X chromosome (in males) comes from female parent;
g. any male receiving allele from mother will express the trait;
h. XbY is genotype for colour blind male;
i. many more males have colour blindness than females;
j. female will express colour blindness only if is homozygous recessive/Xb Xb;
k. heterozygous/XB Xb female is a carrier;
l. colour blind female could be born to colour blind father and carrier mother;

Marks may be earned for use of annotated diagram/Punnett square to show points given above.
Accept use of letters other than B and b as long as capital letter is used for dominant and lower case
letter for recessive alleles. For using other improper notation (not showing X or Y), award [0] for
the first misuse and then apply ECF to additional notation as long as usage is consistent.

a. DNA from child, mother and possible father(s) used to establish paternity;
b. (DNA profiling is done) for legal reasons / divorce / inheritance;
c. (DNA profiling is done) for personal reasons / self-esteem issues for children/fathers/parents;
d. DNA copied/amplified using PCR;
e. DNA cut using restriction enzymes;
f. (gel) electrophoresis used to separate DNA fragments;
g. pattern of bands is produced (in gel);
h. analysed for matches between child with mother and possible father;
i. (about) half the child's bands will match the father (while the other half will match the mother);
a. meiosis reduces a diploid cell into (four) haploid cell(s);
b. (during prophase I) homologous chromosomes pair up/synapsis;
c. chromatids (break and) recombine / crossing over
d. (metaphase I) (homologous chromosomes) at the equator of the spindle / middle of cell;
e. (anaphase I) (homologous) chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles;
f. (telophase I) chromosomes reach poles and unwind WTTE;
g. (prophase II) chromosomes (condense and) become visible, new spindles form;
h. (metaphase II) chromosomes line up at the centre of the cells/equator;
i. (anaphase II) sister chromatids separate;
j. (telophase II) chromatids reach the poles and unwind;

a. differentiated/somatic/diploid cells taken from donor animal/sheep udder;

b. (diploid) nucleus from donor cells removed;
c. ova/eggs cells removed from (donor) animal/female sheep;
d. (haploid) nucleus removed from eggs/ova;
e. (diploid/donor’s) nucleus is fused with/inserted into egg/ovum (to form zygote);
f. embryo (from cell with donor nucleus and egg from surrogate) implanted in uterus of surrogate
mother;
g. normal pregnancy and birth is completed;
h. offspring is a genetic copy/clone of the donor mother/diploid nucleus WTTE;
a. therapeutic cloning involves producing embryos from which embryonic stem cells can be
harvested for medical use;

argument in favour:
b. (to many people) any procedure that reduces pain and suffering is ethically/morally justified;
c. stem cells can be used to replace organs/tissues that have been lost/damaged in a patient;
d. (thus) pain and suffering can be reduced/lives can be saved/life quality improved;
e. cells can be removed from embryos that have stopped developing and would have died anyway;
f. cells are removed at a stage when no pain can be felt by the embryo;
g. use embryos from IVF that would otherwise be destroyed;

Accept up to one additional reasonable argument in favour.

argument against:
h. embryonic stem cells are no longer needed as adult stem cells can be used without causing loss of
life;
i. there is danger of embryonic stem cells developing into tumour cells/harmful effects are not yet
known;
j. every human embryo is a potential human with the right to development;
k. more embryos may be produced than can be used and so some would be killed;
l. (to many people) any procedure that harms a life/kills is unethical/morally wrong;
Accept up to one additional reasonable argument against.

a. (consists of) prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase;

b. chromosome number halved/reduced/(diploid) to haploid;
c. homologous chromosomes pair up/form a bivalent/synapsis in prophase;
d. crossing over between non-sister chromatids/chromatids of different homologues;
e. nuclear envelope breaks down (at end of prophase/start of metaphase);
f. tetrads/bivalents/homologous pairs move to/align on equator/cell centre/on metaphase plate in
metaphase; (accept homologous chromosomes without pairs if pairing has already been described)
g. attachment of spindle fibres/microtubules to centromeres/kinetochores;
h. (homologous) chromosomes separate/pulled to opposite poles in anaphase;
i. nuclear envelopes reform/do not reform (because of meiosis II) in telophase;
Accept the above points in a series of annotated diagrams. Reject answers with single chromatids
forming pairs in metaphase or separating or moving to opposite poles in anaphase.

d. find evidence for evolutionary relationships/human origins/ancestors;

e. find mutations/base substitutions/single nucleotide polymorphisms;
f.
d. find genesofcausing/increasing
a benefit specific chance of/develop test for/screen for diseases;
when transcribed, RNAgenetic modification;
sequence/codon eg, increased
becomes GUG rathercropthan
yields / less land needed;
GAG;
e. a second benefit of this specific modification; eg, reduced
during translation, have one amino acid substituted for another; need for use of chemical pesticides;
b. recessive
causes allele:
glutamic an allele thatto
acid/glutamate produces its characteristic
be replaced by valine; phenotype only when present in
c. gametes of state
homozygous other/ parent; (shown
is expressed in Punnett
when dominantgrid)
allele not present;
d. genotypes of offspring; (shown in Punnett grid)
e. phenotypes of offspring expressed as a ratio or possibly in the Punnett grid;
e. Y chromosomes do not have the allele/hemophiliac males are XhY;
f. males inherit their X chromosome from their mother/do not pass the allele to sons;
f.
g. spliced
males havetogether
onlyby oneligase;
copy so recessive trait/allele is not masked;
d.
g. restriction enzyme/endonuclease
reverse transcriptase makes DNAused to open
copies of mRNA plasmid/cut
/ DNA DNA;polymerase to increase the amount of
e. complementary bases/sticky ends on gene and
e. Y chromosomes do not have the allele/hemophiliac males are plasmid/link gene to plasmid;
XhY;
f.
f. sealed
males using ligase;
inherit their X chromosome frombecomes
their mother/do not pass
when transcribed, RNA sequence/codon GUG rather than the
GAG;allele to sons;
g. males have only one copy so recessive trait/allele
during translation, have one amino acid substituted for another; is not masked;
argument in favour/benefit
causes glutamic acid/glutamate of named
to be example;
replaced by (e.g. increase in crop yield)
valine;
females
argumentXX in and males XY;of named example; (e.g. reduction in use of herbicides)
favour/benefit
X chromosome is larger than / carries more genes than the Y chromosome;
22 types/pairs of autosomes;
crossing over occurs at random positions;
affected males have
due to crossing over only
the twoonechromatids
copy of theofgene / have carrier
metaphase daughtersare
I chromosomes butnot
cannot pass the condition
identical;
on to sons;
carrier/heterozygous females can have affected sons/carrier daughters;
Uses
gene: for karyotypes:
a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic;
chromosome pairs fail
allele: one specific formtoof separate
a gene in meiosis Ithe
occupying / chromatids
same geneinlocusmeiosis II / anaphase
as other alleles ofII;
the gene;
some gametes have an extra chromosome;
combination of alleles determines the phenotype;
can leadfortorange
allows zygotes/individuals
of skin colourswith an extra chromosome
/ continuous variation of skin/ individual
colour; has 47 chromosomes;
phenotypes
which do not
(in turn) follow
leads tojoin simple Mendelian
a change ratios
in translation of dominance
/ change and recessiveness;
in polypeptide chain/ protein;
non-sister chromatids up/swap/exchange alleles/parts;
(the tRNA)
X-shaped adds
structurethe wrong amino
formed / chiasmata acid to the polypeptide
are X-shaped chain;
structures;
non-separation of chromatids during anaphase II;
chiasma formed at position
due to centromeres not dividing; where crossing over occurred;
occurs during gamete/sperm/egg formation;
Unit 4: Ecology

19HL Outline energy flow through a food chain (4)

Outline the features of ecosystems that make them

19HL
sustainable. (4)

Extensive areas of the rainforest in Cambodia are being

cleared for large-scale rubber plantations. Distinguish
18HL between the sustainability of the natural ecosystems such as
rainforests and the sustainability of areas used for agriculture
(3)
 Outline how greenhouse gases interact with radiation and
18HL
contribute to global warming. (4)

Describe the reasons for the shape of a pyramid of energy

18HL
(3)

18HL Outline the roles bacteria play in the carbon cycle. [3]
 Discuss the processes in the carbon cycle that affect
17SL concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in the
atmosphere and the consequences for climate change. (8)

Explain the processes by which energy enters and flows

16SL
through ecosystems. (8)

16SL Draw a labelled diagram of a pyramid of energy. (4)

 Describe how energy flows through and is used by
16HL
organisms in ecosystems. (4)

Outline how the energy flow through food chains limits their
16HL
length. (3)

Aquatic and other environments are being affected by a

15SL global rise in temperature. Outline the consequences of this
on arctic ecosystems (8)
13SL Draw a labelled diagram of the carbon cycle. (5)

dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere during a typical

13SL Ecologists sometimes display dataon
from an of
ecosystem
year and the likely consequences Earth the yearlyusing
rises
13HL a diagram called a pyramid of energy. Describe what is
12SL shown in pyramids
Define habitat, of energy.
population, (6)
community and ecosystem. (4)
12SL Outline how energy flows through an ecosystem. (6)
Explain the flow of energy between trophic levels in
12SL
ecosystems. (8) and consequences of the enhanced
Outline the causes
12HL
greenhouse
Describe theeffect. (5) of energy and nutrients in an
movement
10SL Describe the relationship between the rise in the
ecosystem. (6)
10HL concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and the
enhanced greenhouse effect. (5)
a. energy from the sun/light energy is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis
b. «chemical» energy flows through the food chains by feeding
c. energy is released «from carbon compounds» by respiration
OR energy from respiration is used by living organisms and converted to heat
d. heat is not recyclable / heat is lost from food chains OR heat cannot be converted to other
forms of energy
e. energy is lost in excretion/uneaten material/egestion/feces
f. energy losses between trophic levels limits the length of food chains
OR energy transfer is only 10% between trophic levels

a. recycling of nutrients/elements/components/materials
b. carbon/nitrogen/another example of recycled nutrient/element
c. decomposers/saprotrophs break down organic matter/release «inorganic» nutrients
d. energy supplied by the sun OR energy cannot be recycled «so ongoing supply is
needed» OR energy is lost from ecosystems as heat
e. energy flow along food chains/through food web/through trophic levels
f. photosynthesis/autotrophs make foods/trap energy OR autotrophs supply the food that
supports primary consumers
g. oxygen «for aerobic respiration» released by autotrophs/photosynthesis/plants
h. carbon dioxide «for photosynthesis» released by respiration
i. populations limited by food supply/predator-prey/interactions/competition OR populations
regulated by negative feedback OR fewer/less of each successive trophic level «along the
food chain»/OWTTE
j. supplies of water from rainfall/precipitation/rivers/water cycle

a. sustainable communities/ecosystems allow continued survival of organisms/OWTTE

b. naturalecosystemscanbesustainableoverlongperiodsoftime/OWTTE
c. naturalecosystems/rainforestmoresustainablethanagriculturalareas/plantations
d. diversecommunity/highbiodiversity/higherbiodiversityinnaturalecosystems/rainforest
less/low biodiversity in agricultural areas/agricultural soils
e. agriculturalareas/monoculturesmoreaffectedbypests/diseases
f. nutrient recycling «efficient» in natural ecosystems/rainforest
g. nutrientsremovedwithcrops/nutrientsremovedwhencropsareharvested
less formation of humus/less organic matter in agricultural soils
h. morewaterrecycling/morerainfall/moretranspirationinnaturalecosystems/rainforest
i. larger biomass/more carbon stored «in biomass» in natural ecosystems/rainforest
j. shallower soils/less soil erosion/degraded soils/infertile soils in agricultural areas
a. carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas
b. methane/nitrogen oxide/water vapour is a greenhouse gas
c. sunlight/light/(solar) radiation passes through the atmosphere (to reach the Earth’s
surface)
d. CO2 in atmosphere/greenhouse gases absorb/trap/reflect back some radiation/heat
(emitted by the Earth’s surface)
e. CO2 in atmosphere/greenhouse gases allow short wave radiation to pass (through
atmosphere) but absorb long wave/infra-red
f. solar radiation/sunlight is (mostly) short wave
g. radiation/heat emitted by the Earth is long wave/infra-red

a. pyramid of energy has stepped shape with largest bottom step being producers, then
first consumer, second consumer, etc
b. light energy «from sun» converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by
photosynthesis
c. energy released by respiration is used in living organisms AND converted to heat
d. heat «energy» is lost from ecosystems
e. approximately 10 % of energy in trophic level converted into new material for next level
f. energy also lost as undigested material/uneaten material/feces/excretion

a. decomposition of dead organic material «by saprotrophic bacteria»

b. «decomposition» leads to CO2 formation/regeneration due to respiration
c. «saprotrophic bacteria only» partially decompose dead organic matter in
acidic/anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soil
d. results in peat formation in bogs/swamps
e. photosynthetic bacteria/cyanobacteria fix CO2 in photosynthesis
a. CO2 is produced from respiration in organisms/combustion of biomass/fossil fuels
b. CH4 is produced by anaerobic respiration of biomass/«methanogenic» bacteria
c. CH4 is oxidized to CO2 and water
d. CO2 is converted into carbohydrates/organic compounds by
autotrophs/producers/photosynthesis
e. CO2 can be converted to calcium carbonate/fossilized into limestone
f. «partially» decomposed organic matter/biomass can be converted into
peat/coal/oil/gas/fossil fuels
g. CO2 and CH4 are both greenhouse gases/increase greenhouse effect
h. both absorb long-wave radiation from the earth and retain the heat in the atmosphere
i. increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere correlate with increased combustion of
fossil fuels
j. rising average global temperatures correlate with more greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
k. cattle production/rice paddy/defrosting of tundra increase CH4 in the atmosphere
increasing CO2 leads to acidification of marine/aquatic environments
l. the global temperature increase influences/disrupts climate patterns

a. light energy is the initial energy source for (all) organisms

b. producers/autotrophs change light/radiant energy into chemical energy
OR
producers/autotrophs convert/trap light/radiant energy by photosynthesis
c. producing C6H12O6 /sugars/carbohydrates
d. carbon/organic compounds used for energy/growth/repair/storage
e. compounds/energy pass as food along food chains/trophic levels WTTE
f. cellular respiration releases energy as ATP from food
g. energy is lost as heat (during cellular respiration)
h. loss of energy at each trophic level
OR
only approximately 10% of energy is passed to the next trophic level / 90% is lost at each
trophic level
i. energy lost in bones/hair when they die/not fully eaten by the next trophic level
j. energy lost in feces/urine
k. decomposers/saprotrophs remove energy from wastes/bodies
l. energy is not recycled

a. drawn in steps rather than triangle

b. drawn to scale (should be at least 1/5 of the box below it)
OR
annotated with appropriate numeric values
c. producer
d. primary consumer
e. secondary consumer

Award no marks if a drawing has not been made.

a. producers/plants/autotrophs obtain energy from light/sun/inorganic sources
b. food contains energy / energy passed in the form of food/carbon compounds (along food
chains/between trophic levels)
c. consumers obtain energy from other organisms/from previous trophic level
This mark point distinguishes consumers from producers.
d. energy released (in organisms) by (cell) respiration
Reject energy used in respiration.
e. ATP produced
f. energy/ATP used for biosynthesis/movement/active transport/other valid use of ATP
g. less energy available / energy lost at each trophic level

Only a small proportion/20 %/10 % «of energy» can pass from one trophic level to the next
Accept named trophic levels or named stages in a food chain in place of “trophic levels”.
OR
large proportion/80 %/90 % lost between one trophic level and the next Accept if clearly
shown in a diagram such as a pyramid of energy.

Energy released by respiration AND lost as heat Not just respiration or heat.

Energy losses due to uneaten parts/undigested parts/feces/egestion

Not enough energy for 4th/5th/later stages of a food chain

OR
more energy available if feeding at an earlier stage in a food chain

a. warming results in melting (arctic/polar) ice (cap) / loss of ice habitats;

b. (warming) raises sea level / floods coastal areas / destroys coastal habitats;
c. (warming) of habitat would change species/flora/fauna that can be supported (named
examples can be used);
d. decrease in size of population(s) / possible extinction of species;
e. temperate species move into area / arctic species adapt/move;
f. change in distribution of species/changes in migration patterns;
g. (ecological) changes will affect higher trophic levels/food webs/food chains;
h. increased rates of decomposition of detritus from (melting) permafrost;
i. increased success of pest species including pathogens;
CO2 in atmosphere/air;
plants/producers linked to carbon in air/CO2 with arrow labeled photosynthesis;
plants/consumers linked to animals/consumers with arrow labeled feeding;
plants/producers and animals/consumers linked to carbon in air/CO2 with arrow labeled
(cell) respiration;
plants/producers and animals/consumers linked to decomposers/bacteria/fungi with arrow
labeled death;
decomposers/bacteria/fungi linked to carbon in air/CO2 with arrow labeled (cell) respiration;
plants/producers connected to carbon in air/CO2 with arrow labeled combustion/forest fire;
decomposers/bacteria/fungi linked to fossil fuels/coal/oil/natural gas with arrow labeled
(partial) decomposition;
fossil fuels/coal/oil/gas linked to carbon in air/CO2 with arrow labeled
combustion;

Consequences: [5 max]
f. enhanced greenhouse effect caused by raised levels of carbon dioxide;
e.
g. second
causing level
global is warming;
primary consumers/herbivores;
f. third level of secondary
time/interact; (some reference consumers/carnivores;
to common
place and time is required)
only a small percentage/10–20 % of the energy is passed along food chain;
energy
energy lost
flow in
in the form of heat;
an ecosystem is measured as energy per unit area/volume, per unit time, for
heating of the atmosphere/global
example kJ m–2 yr–1/ kJ m–3 day–1 warming/climate change;
/ other valid unit;
melting of ice caps/glaciers/permafrost / sea level rise / floods / droughts / changes in
energy flow can/ be
ocean currents illustrated
more powerfulbyhurricanes
pyramid shape;
/ extreme weather events / other abiotic
reradiated
organisms from absorb Earth as longer
nutrients fromwave radiation/infra red/heat;
food/environment;
CO2 /greenhouse gases trap/absorb longer wave radiation/infra red/heat;
global warming happened during same time/period as CO2 rise;
Unit 5: Evolution and Biodiversity

19HL Explain how natural selection can lead to speciation (7)

Outline the evidence for evolution provided by selective

17HL
breeding. (3)
 Describe, using one example, how homologous structures
17HL
provide evidence for evolution. (4)

Outline how reproductive isolation can occur in an animal

17HL
population. (3)
16SL Explain how the process of evolution occurs. (8)
 Explain how evolution may happen in response to an
15HL
environmental change. (8)

15SL Explain the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. (6)

Describe the consequences of the potential overproduction
15HL
of offspring.
Explain how (5)
DNA is used to pass on genetic information to
15HL
offspring accurately but also produce variation in species. (8)
 Reproduction can cause populations to increase rapidly.
13SL Draw a labelled graph showing a sigmoid population growth
curve. (4)

Explain the various possible consequences of

13SL
overproduction
Outline the typesof of
offspring.
evidence(6)that can be used to support the
13HL
theory
Explainoftwo
evolution.
examples (4)of evolution in response to an
13HL Plants are a diverse group
environmental change. (8) of eukaryotic organisms. Describe
10SL the different characteristics of the bryophyta, filicinophyta,
Explain how sexual
coniferophyta reproduction can eventually
and angiospermophyta. (9) lead to
10SL
evolution in offspring. (8)

Using simple external recognition features, distinguish

10SL between the plant phyla bryophyta and angiospermophyta.
(4)

response to environmental change. Using another example,

10HL
explain how an environmental change can lead to evolution.
a. variation is required for natural selection/evolution/variation in species/populations
b. mutation/meiosis/sexual reproduction is a source of variation
c. competition/more offspring than the environment can support
d. adaptations make individuals suited to their environment/way of life
e. survival of better adapted «individuals)/survival of fittest/converse
f. inheritance of traits/passing on genes of better adapted «individuals» OR
reproduction/more reproduction of better adapted/fittest «individuals»
g. speciation is formation of a new species/splitting of a species/one population becoming a
separate species
h. reproductive isolation of separated populations
i. geographic isolation «of populations can lead to speciation»
j. temporal/behavioral isolation «of populations can lead to speciation»
k. disruptive selection/differences in selection «between populations can lead to
speciation»
l. gradual divergence of populations due to natural selection/due to differences in
environment
m. changes in the gene pools «of separated populations»/separation of gene pools
n. interbreeding becomes impossible/no fertile offspring «so speciation has happened»

a. crop plants/domesticated animals/livestock produced by selective breeding

b. specific example of a domesticated animal/crop plant and the wild species from which it
was developed
OR
specific example of a domesticated animal/crop plant and the features in it which have
been improved «compared with the wild species»
For example dogs have been developed from wolves
c. artificial selection/crossing selected varieties/eliminating undesirable varieties
d. «selective breeding/artificial selection can cause» significant/rapid change over time/from
the original wild species
e. «changes due to selective breeding/artificial selection» shows natural selection can
cause change/evolution «in a species»
a. similar structure but different function «in homologous structures»

b. pentadactyl limbs/limb with five digits/toes / other example

c. similar bone structure/example of similarity of bones «in pentadactyl limbs» but different
uses/functions

d. two examples of use of pentadactyl limb by a vertebrate group

e. suggests a common ancestor «and evolutionary divergence»

f. process called adaptive radiation

a. can be sympatric or allopatric

b. temporal isolation by members of difference populations reproducing at different times

OWTTE

c. behavioural isolation by difference in courtship behaviours OWTTE

d. geographic isolation by a population being separated by river/mountain/barrier to contact

An example of a geographic barrier is required.

e. polyploidy
Evolution is «cumulative» change in population/species over time
OR
change in allele frequency

A population has variations amongst the individuals

Due to meiosis
OR
sexual reproduction

Due to mutations

Certain variations give an advantage to some organisms over others in certain

environments

Populations/species produce more offspring than the environment can support

Individuals of the species compete for the same resources

The better-adapted organisms tend to survive and reproduce

OR
less adapted organisms tend to die or reproduce fewer offspring

Individuals «that reproduce» pass on their «heritable» characteristics/alleles/genes to their

offspring (“Traits” is an acceptable alternative to “characteristic”)

Natural selection increases the frequency of «heritable» characteristics/alleles/genes of the

better-adapted organisms (Accept “genes”)

Specific example described (Example must be “described” to award marks)

Award [7 max] if no reference to heritable characteristics or alleles.

a. (genetic) variation in population;

b. (variation is) due to mutation / sexual reproduction;

c. valid example of variation in a specific population;

d. more offspring are produced than can survive / populations over-populate;

e. competition / struggle for resources/survival;

f. example of competition/struggle for resources;

g. survival of fittest/best adapted (to the changed environment)/those with beneficial

adaptations / converse;

h. example of changed environment and adaptation to it;

i. favourable genes/alleles passed on / best adapted reproduce (more) / converse;

j. example of reproduction of individuals better adapted to changed environment;

k. alleles for adaptations to the changed environment increase in the population;

l. example of genes/alleles for adaptations increasing in a population;

m. evolution by natural selection;

n. evolution is (cumulative) change in population/species over time / change in allele

frequency;

Suitable examples are antibiotic resistance and the peppered moth but any genuine
evidence-based example of adaptation to environmental change can be credited.
f. resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and spread the gene / increase allele frequency of
resistant
need; bacteria;
e. genes occur
e. variation as paired
between allelesofwhich
members can be/ example
population different;of variation;
f. crossing-over occurs;
g. recombines linked alleles producing new combinations;
they are more likely to survive and reproduce;
e. homologous (anatomical) structures/vestigial organs (give evidence of evolution);
f. homologous structures/pentadactyl limbs/other example show common ancestry;
Example:
filicinophyta (often)aureus/MRSA/Clostridium
f. Staphylococcus have divided/pinnate leaves;
difficile/other named species;
fertilization
filicinophyta(combination of different
produce spores genomes) contributes
in sporangia/spores to variation;
on the undersides of leaves;
more offspring may be produced than the environment can hold;
struggle for existence can occur;

reason for new phenotype being better adapted;

detail of reason for adaptedness of new phenotype;
Unit 6: Human Physiology

19HL Describe the functions of valves in the mammalian heart. (4)

19HL Outline the process of inspiration in humans (4)

 Explain the events that occur during a nerve impulse and
18SL
how the impulse is propagated along an axon. (7)

Outline how ventilation in humans ensures a supply of

18HL
oxygen. (4)
 Describe the processes involved in absorbing different
18HL nutrients across the cell membrane of villus epithelium cells
lining the small intestine. (4)

Outline the roles of estrogen and progesterone in females

18HL
during human reproduction. (4)

Outline the role of the parts of an alveolus in a human lung.

18SL
(4)
 Explain how the small intestine moves, digests and absorbs
17SL
food. (8)

17SL Outline how leptin controls appetite. (3)

 Some blood proteins are involved in defence against
17SL infectious disease. Explain the roles of named types of blood
proteins in different defence mechanisms. (8)

Outline how antibiotics offer protection from certain forms of

17HL
infectious disease. (4)
 Explain the roles of specific hormones in the menstrual
17HL cycle, including positive and negative feedback mechanisms
(8)

Outline the exchange of materials between capillaries and

16SL
tissues. (3)
16SL Explain the structures and functions of arteries and veins. (8)

16SL Describe what happens in alveoli. (4)

 Explain how circulation of the blood to the lungs and to other
16HL systems is separated in humans and what the advantages of
this separation are. (8)

Explain the propagation of electrical impulses along a neuron

16SL
including the role of myelin. (7)
15SL Draw a labelled diagram of a motor neuron. (5)

Explain how an impulse passes along the axon of a neuron

15SL
(8)
 Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of the heart.
15HL
(5)

Outline how the human body responds to high blood glucose

15HL
levels (5)

Bacteria are prokaryotes that sometimes act as pathogens.

15SL Describe how the body can defend itself against pathogens.
(7)
 Draw a labelled diagram of the human heart showing the
15HL
attached blood vessels. (6)

15SL Describe the action of the heart in pumping blood. (5)

 Nerves connecting the brain and heart contain neurons that
15SL control heart rate. Explain how a nerve message passes
from one neuron to another neuron (7)

Active skeletal muscle requires a good supply of oxygen.

15HL
Outline the mechanism of ventilation in the lungs. (6)

13SL Explain the mechanism of ventilation in humans. (7)

13SL Outline the role
Membranes of hormonesand
of pre-synaptic in the menstrual cycle
post-synaptic (8) play
neurons
13HL an important role in transmission of nerve impulses. Explain
Explain the relationship
the principles of synapticbetween structure
transmission. (8) and function of
13SL
arteries, capillaries and veins (8)
 Outline how leucocytes defend the body against pathogens
13SL
(6)
Explain the mechanism of ventilation in the lungs in order to
13SL
promote gas exchange for cell respiration. (9)
13HL Explain the control of body temperature in humans (8)
13HL Describe the process of blood clotting (4)
Describe the features of alveoli in human lungs that adapt
13HL
them for efficient absorption of oxygen. (6)
13HL Explain the mechanism of ventilation of human lungs (8)
LH (luteinizing hormone) affect the development of certain
13HL
cells by binding
Describe to receptors
the digestion of foodin in
the plasma
the humanmembranes.
digestive
12SL
system. (6)
Outline the control of the heartbeat by the nervous and
12SL
endocrine systems. (6)
12SL Explain the principles of synaptic transmission (8)
Explain the need for a ventilation system and the mechanism
12SL
of ventilation of the lungs in humans (8)
12HL Outline what is meant by homeostasis (4)
12HL Describe how body temperature is maintained in humans. (6)
Outline the digestion, absorption and assimilation of proteins
12HL
in humans. between
Distinguish (6) ventilation, gas exchange and cell
11HL
respiration. (4)
11HL Draw a labelled diagram of the digestive system. (4)
11HL Outline the role of the skin in temperature regulation (5)
Explain the roles of the atria and ventricles in the pumping of
10SL
blood. (4)
Explain how the structure of an artery allows it to carry out its
10SL
function efficiently
Explain the reasons (5)for starch being digested by the human
10SL
digestive
Explain howsystem. (4)
an impulse passes along the membrane of a
10SL
neuron (8)
10HL List the other components of blood. (5)
Outline how the human body prevents blood glucose
10HL
concentration
Describe how from rising cells
pancreatic excessively.
directly (5)
affect blood glucose
10HL
levels (5)
a. prevents backflow/ensures one-way flow/controls direction of flow

b. open valves allow blood to flow through OR opening and closing of valves controls timing of blood flow «during c
cycle»

c. closed «semilunar» valves allow ventricles/chambers to fill with blood

OR closed «semilunar» valves allow pressure in ventricles to rise «rapidly»

d. valves open when pressure is higher upstream/OWTTE/converse for closed valves

e. AV/bicuspid/tricuspid/mitral valves prevent backflow from ventricle to atrium

OR AV/bicuspid/tricuspid/mitral valves open when pressure in atrium is higher «than in the ventricle»/when atrium is
pumping/contracting

f. semilunar/aortic/pulmonary valves prevent backflow from artery to ventricle

OR semilunar/aortic/pulmonary valves open when pressure in ventricle is higher «than in the artery»/when ventricle
pumping/contracting

a. diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract

b. diaphragm moves down/becomes flatter

OR external intercostals raise the ribcage/move the ribcage up/out

c. muscles/diaphragm/intercostals increase volume of thorax/expand the thorax

OR muscles/diaphragm/intercostals decrease pressure in the thorax

d. as volume «of thorax/lungs» increases the pressure decreases

e. air enters «lungs» due to decreased pressure/higher pressure outside body

f. air flows to lungs through trachea and bronchi/bronchioles

a. nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along axons of neurons

b. resting potential is –70 mV

c. Na+/K+ pumps maintain/re-establish «the resting potential»

relatively negative inside in comparison to the outside

d. more sodium ions outside than inside «when at the resting potential»
more potassium ions inside than outside «when at the resting potential»

e. action potential stimulates «wave of» depolarization along the membrane/axon

f. «when neuron is stimulated» if threshold potential is reached Na+ channels open

g. sodium ions diffuse/move in

h. «Na+ move in» causing depolarization / inside of the neuron becomes more positively charged than the outside o
neuron

i. potassium ion channels open

potassium ions diffuse/move out

j. «K+ move out» causing repolarization

k. local currents
description of Na+ ion diffusion between depolarized region and next region of axon to depolarize

l. myelination increases propagation speed/allows saltatory conduction

a. ventilation is exchange of gases between lungs and air

b. during inhalation diaphragm contracts AND lowers

c. external intercostal muscles contract, raising ribs upwards and outwards

d. increase in volume AND decrease in pressure within thoracic cavity

e. air drawn into alveoli bringing fresh supply of oxygen

f. oxygen concentration in alveolar sacs is higher than in blood capillaries

g. «oxygen concentration gradient» causes oxygen to diffuse out of alveoli into red blood cells in capillaries
a. (simple diffusion) of nutrients along/down a concentration gradient

b. example of simple diffusion eg fatty acids

c. facilitated diffusion of nutrients involves movement through channel proteins

d. example of nutrient diffusion eg fructose

e. active transport of nutrients against a concentration gradient / involving protein pumps

f. example of active transport, eg (iron) ions/glucose/amino acids

g. endocytosis / by means of vesicles

h. example of nutrient for endocytosis, eg cholesterol in lipoprotein particles

a. estrogen/progesterone for repair/thickening/development/vascularisation of uterus lining/endometrium

b. estrogen (at high levels) stimulates LH secretion (which stimulates ovulation)

c. progesterone maintains the uterus lining/endometrium during pregnancy/prevents miscarriage

d. progesterone/estrogen inhibits FSH/LH secretion

e. progesterone for development of breast tissue during pregnancy

f. fall in progesterone/rise in estrogen leads to labour/contractions/childbirth

g. estrogen/progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs

h. estrogen/progesterone cause secondary sexual characteristics

a. the (spherical) wall of an alveolus maximizes/allows gas exchange.

b. pneumocytes I (optimize) gas exchange.

c. pneumocytes II produce surfactant.

d. adjacent capillaries enclose alveolus for efficient gas exchange with blood.

e. surfactant reduces surface tension/prevents collapse of alveolus.

f. (alveolar) macrophages/phagocytes help with defense/homeostasis/response to foreign substances.

a. contraction of muscle «layers»/peristalsis helps move food
circular muscle contraction prevents backward movement of food
longitudinal muscle contraction moves food along gut

b. peristalsis/muscle contractions mix food with intestinal enzymes

c. enzymes digest macromolecules into monomers (accept an example)

d. pancreatic enzymes/amylase/lipase/endopeptidase «chemically» digest food in«lumen of» small intestine

e. «pancreatic» amylase digests starch

lipases digest lipids/fats/triglycerides
endopeptidases/dipeptidases digest proteins/polypeptides

f. bile/bicarbonate secreted into the small intestine creates favorable pH for enzymes
bile emulsifies fat

g. some final digestion into monomers is associated with epithelial cells/epithelium «of small intestine»

h. mucosa layer/inside surface/lining of small intestine contains villi/finger-like projections

i. villi/microvilli increase surface area for better absorption

j. villi absorb products of digestion/monomers/mineral «ions»/vitamins

k. glucose/amino acids enter blood «capillaries»

lipids enter lymph vessels/lacteals

l. absorption involves active transport/diffusion/facilitated diffusion

m. different nutrients are absorbed by different transport mechanisms

a. leptin suppresses/inhibits appetite

b. is secreted by adipose tissue/fat «storage» tissue

c. level is controlled by amount of adipose tissue/«ongoing» food intake

d. leptin targets cells in hypothalamus/appetite control centre in brain

e. causes hypothalamus/control centre in brain to inhibit appetite

f. if amount of adipose tissue increases, blood leptin concentration rises

a. clotting factors «are proteins» that initiate the clotting cascade/process

b. fibrin «is a protein that» permits blood clotting

allows the formation of a clot

c. «the protease» thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

d. fibrin forms a mesh/clot that prevents the entry of pathogen/antigen into the blood

e. antibodies are «specific» proteins that lymphocytes make

f. each antibody corresponds to a specific pathogen/antigen

antibodies are specific «to certain pathogens/antigens»

g. antibodies create specific immunity

h. plasma cells produce large amounts of «specific» antibodies

memory cells retain the ability to produce «specific» antibodies

i. immunoglobulins are antibodies against pathogens

j. enzymes in phagocytic white blood cells may digest pathogens

a. protect against/kill/inhibit growth of microorganisms/bacteria/prokaryotes

b. bacteria/prokaryote processes blocked but not processes in eukaryotes/other organisms

c. block metabolic pathways/DNA replication/DNA transcription/translation/ribosome functioning/cell wall formation

d. do not protect against viruses as they have no metabolism/are non-living

e. antibiotics fail to protect if bacteria have resistance

f. can be used in humans/animals because antibiotics do not affect eukaryotic cells/bacterial metabolism is different
a. anterior pituitary/hypophysis secretes FSH which stimulates ovary for follicles to develop

b. follicles secrete estrogen

c. estrogen stimulates more FSH receptors on follicle cells so respond more to FSH

d. increased estrogen results in positive feedback on «anterior» pituitary

e. estrogen stimulates LH secretion

f. estrogen promotes development of endometrium/uterine lining

g. LH levels increase and cause ovulation

h. LH results in negative feedback on follicle cells/estrogen production

i. LH causes follicle to develop into corpus luteum

follicle cells produce more progesterone

j. progesterone thickens the uterus lining

k. high progesterone results in negative feedback on pituitary/prevents FSH/LH secretion

l. progesterone levels drop and allow FSH secretion

m. falling progesterone leads to menstruation/degradation of uterine lining

a. molecules move by diffusion / move down a concentration gradient

b. nutrients move into tissues

c. gas exchange / Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between tissues and blood/capillaries

d. (nitrogenous) wastes/excess water move from cells/tissues into blood/capillaries

e. hormones leave capillaries in target tissues/to attach to receptors on cells / (endocrine) organs/gland tis
release hormones into the bloodstream
a. arteries and veins have three layers in their walls
walls of arteries and veins have tunica externa, media and intima

b. pressure is high in arteries/pressure is low in veins

c. arteries receive blood from ventricles/heart / carry blood away from heart

d. lumen of artery is small to keep pressure high

e. arteries have thick (muscular) walls (with elastic fibres) to withstand pressure

f. elastic fibres recoil in response to ventricle/heart contraction

g. muscle / elastic fibres help maintain pressure between heartbeats

muscle / elastic fibres help propel blood toward capillary beds

h. veins receive blood from capillaries/capillary beds / carry blood to heart

i. large lumen of veins so there is less resistance to blood flow

j. valves in veins keep blood flowing toward heart/prevent backflow

a. gas exchange

b. oxygen diffuses from air to blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to air

c. oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells

d. pressure inside/volume of alveoli increases/decreases / air enters/exits alveoli during inspiration/expiration/ventila

e. blood flow through capillaries / concentration gradients of gases/oxygen/CO2 maintained

f. type II pneumocytes secrete fluid/surfactant / secretion of surfactant to prevent sides of alveolus adhering
a. double circulation / pulmonary and systemic circulations

b. heart is a double pump / heart has separate pumps for lungs and other systems / left and right sides of heart are
no hole in heart (after birth)

c. deoxygenated blood pumped to the lungs and oxygenated to other organs/tissues/whole body (apart from lungs)

d. each side of the heart has an atrium and a ventricle

e. left ventricle/side pumps blood to the systems/tissues and right ventricle/side pumps blood to the lungs

f. left atrium receives blood from the lungs and right atrium receives blood from systems/tissues

g. left ventricle pumps blood via the aorta and right ventricle pumps blood via the pulmonary artery

h. left atrium receives blood via the pulmonary vein and right atrium receives blood via the vena cava

i. lungs require lower pressure blood / high pressure blood would damage lungs

j. high pressure required to pump blood to all systems/tissues apart from lungs

k. pressure of blood returning from lungs not high enough to continue to tissues / blood has to be pumped
after returning from lungs

l. oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood kept separate / all tissues receive blood with high oxygen content/satu

a. Neurotransmitter attaches to receptor site, initiating transmission

b. Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons

c. Resting potential is more negative inside/–70 mV/ more positive outside the membrane
a resting potential has greater concentration of Na ions outside than K ions inside the axon

d. «volted gated» channels open and Na ions diffuse in

e. Causes depolarization of the membrane/–70 mV to +40 mV

f. Local currents affect adjacent channels/cause action potential

g. Depolarization is followed by repolarization of the neuron

h. «voltage gated» channels open and K ions diffuse out/repolarize the membrane

j. Na-K pumps restore Na/K balance/resting potential

k. Myelin around the neuron insulates the axon

speeds the transmission

l. Myelin permits saltatory conduction

permits jumping from node to node
a. cell body – shown with a nucleus;

b. nucleus correctly labelled;

c. axon – shown as double line longer than the longest dendrite;

d. myelin sheath/Schwann cells – surrounding the axon;

e. nodes of Ranvier – shown in axon;

f. dendrites – shown extending from the cell body;

g. motor end plates – not covered by myelin sheath and ending with buttons/dots;

a. resting potential is –70mV / relatively negative inside in comparison to the outside;

b. Na+/K+ pumps maintain/re-establish (the resting potential);

c. more sodium ions outside than inside (when at the resting potential);

d. more potassium ions inside than outside (when at the resting potential);

e. nerve impulse is an action potential that stimulates a (wave of) depolarization along the membrane/axon;

f. if neuron is stimulated/threshold potential/–50mV is reached sodium ion channels open;

g. sodium ions diffuse/move in;

h. (Na+ move in) causing depolarization;

i. potassium ion channels open / potassium ions diffuse/move out;

j. (K+ move out) causing repolarization;

k. local currents / description of Na+ ion diffusion between depolarized region and next region of axon to d
a. left ventricle/right ventricle – both left and right ventricles must be shown but the mark can be awarded if either is
labelled. The left must be thicker walled than right and both must be larger than the atria;

b. left atrium/right atrium – both left and right atria must be shown with thinner walls than ventricles, but the mark ca
awarded if either atrium is correctly labelled;

c. atrio-ventricular valves/tricuspid and bicuspid valves – positioned between atria and ventricles, with both labelled
tri/bicuspid correct if these names are used;

d. semi-lunar valves –shown at the start of the aorta and pulmonary artery, with the cusps facing in the right directio

aorta – shown connected to the left ventricle;

pulmonary artery – shown connected to the right ventricle;

pulmonary vein – shown connected to the left atrium;

vena cava – shown connected to the right atrium;

d. glucose used in cell respiration (rather than lipids);

a. skin/mucus membranes act as barrier (to pathogens);

b. sebaceous glands secrete lactic acid/fatty acids/sebum / make surface of skin acidic;

c. (skin/stomach) acid prevents growth of many pathogens;

d. lysozyme in mucus can kill bacteria;

e. pathogens caught in sticky mucus and removed from body;

f. inflammatory response/inflammation can cause swelling/redness/fever (to inhibit the pathogen);

g. phagocytes/macrophages/leucocytes/white blood cells (non-specifically) identify (pathogens/bacteria/fungi/viruse

foreign;

h. (phagocytes macrophages/leucocytes/white blood cells) ingest pathogens;

i. specific lymphocytes recognize one specific antigen;

j. (antigen-specific) lymphocytes clone themselves;

k. lymphocytes/leucocytes produce antibodies;

l. antigen-antibody complex formed and stimulates destruction of pathogen;

NB: Drawings must be correctly proportioned and clearly drawn showing connections between structures. The draw
show the heart without contraction or in any stage of contraction.

a. atria/right atrium/left atrium – shown above the ventricles and must not be bigger than ventricles;

b. ventricle/left ventricle/right ventricle – below the atria, must have thicker walls than atria;

c. vena cava/superior vena cave/inferior vena cava – connected to right atrium;

d. pulmonary artery – shown from right ventricle (to lungs);

e. pulmonary vein(s) – shown (from lungs) to left atrium;

f. aorta – shown as large artery from left ventricle out of heart;

g. AV valves/atrioventricular valves / mitral/bicuspid and tricuspid – named correctly and shown between both atria
ventricles and labelled at least on one side;

h. semilunar valves – shown in aorta/pulmonary artery;

Valves need to open in correct direction.

a. (both) atria collect blood (from veins);

b. sinoatrial/SA node sends impulses to muscle/fibres initiating contraction;

c. blood is pushed to ventricles by contraction of atria/atrial systole;

d. AV (atrioventricular) valves are open (as atria contract);

e. semilunar valves are closed so that ventricles fill with blood;

f. ventricles contract / ventricular systole;

g. AV (atrioventricular) valves close ( preventing backflow);

h. (blood is pushed through the) semilunar valves/pulmonary artery and aorta;

i. when ventricles relax /diastole, semilunar valves close preventing backflow of blood;

Do not accept the description of blood flow without a clear action.

Do not accept general statements such as systole = heart contraction and diastole = heart relaxation.
[4 max] if answer suggests that left and right sides are contracting at different times or simultaneous contraction no
a. nerve impulse reaches the end of the presynaptic neuron;

b. (depolarization causes) calcium channels in membrane (to) open;

c. calcium diffuses into the presynaptic neuron;

d. vesicles of/containing neurotransmitter move to and fuse with presynaptic membrane;

e. (neurotransmitter) released (by exocytosis) into synaptic space/cleft;

f. (neurotransmitter) diffuses across the space/synapse;

g. (neurotransmitter) attaches to receptors on postsynaptic neuron;

h. receptors cause ion channels to open and sodium diffuses into the postsynaptic neuron;

i. the postsynaptic neuron membrane is depolarized;

j. (depolarization) causes a new action potential;

k. (neurotransmitter) on postsynaptic membrane is broken down;

l. (neurotransmitter) is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron;

during inhalation:

a. external intercostal muscles contract moving rib cage up and out;

b. diaphragm contracts becoming lower/flatter;

c. increase in volume and decrease in pressure (of thorax);

d. air flows into lungs as atmospheric pressure is higher;

during exhalation:

e. internal intercostal muscles contract so ribs move in and down;

f. diaphragm relaxes and returns to domed shape;

g. decrease in volume and (therefore) increase in pressure (of thorax);

h. air moves out until pressure in lungs falls/is equal to atmospheric pressure;

i. abdominal muscles can be used to make a stronger/forced exhalation;

decrease in pressure allows air to enter (passively);
during expiration internal intercostal muscles contract/external intercostal muscles relax;
LH spikeribs
causing stimulates
to moveovulation/follicle
down/in; ruptures releasing oocyte/ova/egg cells;
LH stimulates follicle (left behind in ovary)
vesicles release/exocytose neurotransmitter to into
develop into corpus
the synaptic luteum;
cleft;
f. wall has one layer of cells allowing (fast) diffusion
neurotransmitter diffuses/moves across synaptic cleft; of substances;
g. pores to allow lymphocytes/plasma to exit / to increase permeability;
h. extensive branching increases surface area for exchange of materials;
d. each pathogen has specific antigens;
e. leukocytes/lymphocytes
f. pressure decreases from produce atmosphericantibodies
pressureby reacting to specific
so air rushes antigen/ pathogens;
into lungs;
g. transfer
h. expiration/exhalation
of heat from body forcescoreair out;
in blood to surface;
b. cascade/series of reactions;
i. if temperature rises, increased flow of blood/heat to the skin/vasodilation of skin blood vessels/arterioles; (do not a
c. prothrombin (activated) to thrombin;
c.
d. (surrounded
soluble fibrinogen by) dense networkfibrin
to insoluble of capillaries/capillary
/ thrombin converts bed;
fibrinogen to fibrin;
e.
d. external intercostal
short distance muscles contract so dioxide
for gases/oxygen/carbon ribcage tomoved up/out;
diffuse;
f. diaphragm contracts so moves down/becomes flatter;
e.
g. causes
internal follicle cells to secrete(wall)
intercostal/abdomen less muscles
estrogen/more
relax; progesterone;
stomach musclemaintains
f. progesterone contraction causes mechanicallining
endometrium/uterine digestion;
enzymes in small intestine complete
pacemaker/sino-atrial node/SAN initiates contraction; digestion;
alkaline
nerves (fromcondition in transmit
small intestine provides optimum pH for enzymes;
binding of thebrain)
neurotransmitter messages to pacemaker;
to receptors/binding sites;
to alter/increase/decrease
change in membrane the
permeability;rate of the pacemaker;
bloodstream links alveoli to cells;
sodium ions
inhalation byflow into post-synaptic
contraction of diaphragm; neuron;
example (e.g. body temperature
inhalation occurs with contraction of external / blood pH / blood glucose / water /of
intercostals/relaxation CO2 concentration);
internal intercostals;
levels of these variables are monitored
(vaso) dilation of skin arterioles warms skin/cools body;(internally);
amino
(vaso) acids absorbed
constriction by diffusion/active
of skin arterioles retains transport;
body heat;
absorption occurs in the villus/microvilli of the small intestine;
gas
(amino exchange involves movement
acids absorbed) of carbon dioxide and oxygen;
into capillaries;
between
small and large intestines – connected to /each
alveoli and blood (in capillaries) between
other;blood (in capillaries) and cells;
liver shown as
evaporation of larger
sweat than
leadsthe stomach with gall bladder shown under/embedded in liver;
to cooling;
atria pump blood into ventricles/ensure
cold causes vasoconstriction of arterioles; ventricles are full;
ventricles pump blood into arteries/out
many elastic fibres to stretch and pump blood of the heart;
after each heart beat;
ventricles
narrow pump
lumen to blood
maintainat high
high pressure because
pressure/because ofblood
their flows
thicker, muscular
along rapidly;walls;
glucose produced by digestion of starch can be absorbed;
thick outer layerisofa collagen
starch/glucose useful sourceto give of strength/prevent
energy; aneurism;
causing depolarization;
starch is not used in humans;
leucocytes
sodium ion /channels
white blood shut; cells;
lymphocytes and phagocytes;
glucose
platelets;used in cell respiration (rather than lipids);
β cells (of
glucose pancreas)
converted to produce
glycogen; insulin;
insulin promotes glucose uptake/storage of glycogen by liver/body/muscle cells;
insulin secreted when blood glucose levels are high / lowers blood glucose levels;
Unit 7: Nucleic Acids

19 Outline the roles of helicase and ligase in DNA replication (4)

Outline the roles of the different binding sites for tRNA on

17
ribosomes during translation. (4)

17HL Explain the control of gene expression in eukaryotes. (8)

Growth in living organisms includes replication of DNA. Explain

16
DNA replication (8)
 Explain the roles of specific enzymes in prokaryote DNA
16
replication.
Prior to cell (7)
division, chromosomes replicate. Explain the process
15
of DNA replication in prokaryotes. (8)
15 Outline outcomes of the human genome project (4)
15 Outline the structure and functions of nucleosomes. (4)

13 Explain the process of transcription in prokaryotes. (8)

12 Explain the process of DNA replication. (8)

Outline how the structure of the ribosome is related to its function
12
in translation.
Describe (6)
the relationship between genes, polypeptides and
12
enzymes. (4)
11 Compare the genetic material of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (6)

11 Explain the process of DNA replication (8)

Translation occurs in living cells. Explain how translation is
10
carried out, from the initiation stage onwards (9)

Most of the DNA of a human cell is contained in the nucleus.

10 Distinguish between unique and highly repetitive sequences in
nuclear DNA. (5)

10 Explain the methods and aims of DNA profiling (8)

10 Outline the structure of a ribosome. (4)
Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins with reference
10
to one example of each protein type. (6)
helicase:
a. unwinds/uncoils the DNA «double helix»
b. breaks hydrogen bonds «between bases»
c. separates the «two» strands/unzips the DNA/creates replication fork

ligase:
d. seals nicks/forms a continuous «sugar-phosphate» backbone/strand
e. makes sugar-phosphate bonds/covalent bonds between adjacent nucleotides
f. after «RNA» primers are removed/where an «RNA» primer was replaced by
DNA
g. «helps to» join Okazaki fragments

e. peptide bond is formed between the amino acids of the A site and the polypeptide at the P site

a. mRNA conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes «where it guides polypeptide
production»

b. gene expression requires the production of specific mRNA «through transcription»

c. most genes are turned off/not being transcribed at any one time/regulated
some genes are only expressed at certain times

d. some genes are only expressed in certain cells/tissues

«cell» differentiation involves changes in gene expression

e. transcription factors/proteins can increase/decrease transcription

h. transcription factors/proteins may prevent or enhance the binding of RNA polymerase

f. hormones/chemical environment of cell can affect gene expression

g. example of cell environment

eg: auxin/insulin/cytoplasmic gradient in embryo

i. nucleosomes limit access of transcription factors to DNA/regulate gene expression/transcription

activate or silence genes

j. DNA methylation/acetylation appears to control gene expression «as epigenetic factor»

methylated genes are silenced

k. «some» DNA methylation patterns are inherited

l. introns may contain positive or negative gene regulators

gene expression can be regulated by post-transcriptional modification/splicing/mRNA processing

g. DNA polymerase (III) adds nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction

DNA polymerase III starts replication/adding nucleotides at the primer
e. RNA primase adds primer / primase adds (short) length of RNA;
f.
d. DNA polymerase
find evidence III binds to/starts
for evolutionary at (RNA) primer;origins/ancestors;
relationships/human
g.
e. DNA polymerase (III) adds nucleotides/bases in a 5’ → 3’ direction;
c. find mutations/base
histones substitutions/single
are in an octamer/group nucleotide
of eight; polymorphisms;
f.
d. find genes
are held causing/increasing
together chance of/develop test for/screen for diseases;
by another histone/protein;
e. in linker region;
transcription, synthesis of RNA identical to one strand/coding strand of DNA;

antisense stand acts as template/is transcribed;

RNA polymerase attaches to sequence of DNA known as promoter (region);

RNA polymerase separates the two strands of DNA;

(unwinding) exposes (10–20) DNA bases for pairing with RNA nucleotides;

RNA nucleotides matched to complementary bases;

adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine / uracil replaces thymine;

H bonds between RNA nucleotide and complementary base on DNA strand;

(RNA) nucleoside triphosphates used;

hydrolysis of (two) phosphate molecules provides energy for reaction;

adds nucleotides to the 3′ end of RNA molecule/in 5′ → 3′ direction;

terminator is sequence of DNA signaling end of transcription;

RNA molecule separates completely from DNA;

two phosphates removed to release energy (required for the process);
a(complementary base
small subunit and pairing
a large of) adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine; (reject A with T
one;
enzymes are proteins/composed
(three) binding of polypetides;
sites for tRNA on/in large subunit;
sequence of amino acids determines tertiary structure/folding/shape of active site;
change in the gene/mutation will affect the active site/function of an enzyme;
resulting in formation of Okazaki fragments (on lagging strand);
second tRNA
synthesis pairs
occurs with next
in 5'→3' codon;
direction;
peptide bond forms between amino acids;
ribosome moves along the mRNA by one codon;

to be shared;
Award [5 max] for methods
mRNA binding site on small subunit;
three tRNA
fibrous binding
proteins havesites / A, P roles
structural and E/ tRNA binding role
other specific sites;of fibrous protein;
globular proteins used for catalysis/transport/other specific role of globular protein;
against the replication fork
hence, it forms dna sequences between rna primers called okazaki
Unit 8: Metabolism, Respiration and Photosynthesis

Explain Calvin’s experiment and what was discovered about

19
photosynthesis through his work. (8)

19 Outline the control of metabolism by end-product inhibition (5)

 Explain the stages of aerobic respiration that occur in the
18
mitochondria of eukaryotes. (8)

Explain how chemical energy for use in the cell is generated by

17
electron transport and chemiosmosis. (8)
 Explain the processes by which light energy is converted into
16
chemical energy. (8)

The light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis take place on the

15
thylakoid membranes. Explain the light-dependent reactions. (8)

15 Explain chemiosmosis as it occurs in photophosphorylation. (8)

 Some proteins in membranes act as enzymes. Describe a model
13
that accounts for the ability of enzymes to catalyse reactions. (6)

The protein hemoglobin transports oxygen to cells. Describe the

13 processes that occur in the mitochondria of cells when oxygen is
present. (8)

Explain the light-independent processes of photosynthesis in

13
plants. (8)

Draw a labelled diagram of a mitochondrion as seen in an electron

13
micrograph. (4)

Explain the role of water in the light-dependent reactions of

13
photosynthesis. (8)
12 Outline the process of glycolysis. (6)
12 Explain the effect of inhibitors on the activity of enzymes. (8)
12 Outline control of metabolic pathways (6)

11 Explain the process of photophosphorylation in chloroplasts. (8)

Distinguish between competitive and non-competitive enzyme

11
inhibition of chemical reactions, giving an example of each. (5)

11 Explain the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. (9)

10 Explain how temperature affects these processes. (8)
synthesis

a. Calvin cycle is light-independent

b. carbon fixation OR carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate/RuBP occurs
c. algae placed in thin glass container/“lollipop” apparatus
d. given plenty of light and bicarbonate/ CO2
e. at start of experiment algae supplied radioactive carbon/HCO3 - / 14C
f. samples taken at intervals / heat/alcohol killed samples g. C-compounds separated by
chromatography
h. 14C/radioactive-compounds identified by autoradiography
i. showed that RuBP was phosphorylated
j. after five seconds/immediately more glycerate-3-phosphate/3-PGA labelled than any other
compound
k. shows glycerate-3-phosphate/3-PGA first «carboxylated» compound/the first stable product
l. next compound to be detected containing radioactive carbon was triose
phosphate/G3P/glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
m. showed that a wide range of carbon compounds was quickly made in sequence
n. showed that a cycle of reactions was used to regenerate RuBP

a. metabolism is chains/web of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

OR metabolic pathway is a chain of enzyme-catalyzed reactions
b. end product/inhibitor is final product of chain/pathway
c. inhibits/binds to/blocks the first enzyme in chain/pathway
d. non-competitive inhibition
e. end-product/inhibitor binds to an allosteric site/site away from the active site
f. changes the shape of the active site/affinity of the active site «for the substrate»
g. prevents intermediates from building up
OR prevents formation of excess «end» product/stops production when there is enough
OR whole metabolic pathway can be switched off
h. negative feedback
i. binding of the end product/inhibitor is reversible
OR pathway restarts if end product/inhibitor detaches/if end product concentration is low
j. isoleucine inhibits/slows «activity of first enzyme in» threonine to isoleucine pathway
a. «cell» respiration is the «controlled» release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP
b. «cell respiration» involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers
c. in link reaction pyruvate is converted into acetyl coenzyme A, CO2 is released and NAD is
reduced
d. in the Krebs cycle, a 4 C molecule combines with acetyl CoA
e. decarboxylation releases 2 CO2 molecules for each pyruvate / conversion of 6C to 5C/5C to 4C
releases CO2
f. «3» reduced NAD and «1» reduced FAD are produced
g. ATP generated in the Krebs cycle
h. reduced molecules/FAD/NAD are carried to the cristae/inner membrane of the mitochondria
i. transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the
cristae is coupled to proton pumping
j. protons accumulate in intermembrane space/ between cristae/inner membrane and outer
membrane
proton / electrochemical gradient between intermembrane space and matrix is established
k. protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP
l. chemiosmosis is the use of a proton/electrochemical gradient to generate ATP
m. oxygen is the final electron acceptor

a. NAD/FAD carries/is reduced by gaining «two» H «atoms»/«two» electrons

b. reduced NAD produced in glycolysis/link reaction/Krebs cycle
c. reduced NAD/FAD delivers electrons/hydrogen «atoms» to ETC
d. ETC is in mitochondrial inner membrane/cristae
e. electrons release energy as they flow along the chain/from carrier to carrier
f. electrons from ETC accepted by oxygen/oxygen is the final electron acceptor
g. proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane/electron carriers act as proton pumps
h. protons pumped into intermembrane space/proton gradient across inner mitochondrial
membrane/proton concentration higher in intermembrane space than in matrix
i. energy «from electrons» used to pump protons into intermembrane space/generate a proton
gradient / high H+ concentration is a store of «potential» energy
j. ATP synthase in inner mitochondrial membrane/cristae
k. energy released as protons pass down the gradient/through ATP synthase
l. ATP synthase converts ADP to ATP/phosphorylates ADP
m. oxidative phosphorylation «is ATP production using energy from oxidizing foods»
a. plants/producers/autotrophs convert light to chemical energy by photosynthesis
b. chlorophyll/photosynthetic pigments absorb light
c. electrons are excited/raised to higher energy level
d. excited electrons pass along chain of electron carriers
e. energy from electrons used to pump protons across thylakoid membrane/into thylakoid space
f. chemiosmosis/proton gradient used to make ATP
g. ATP synthase generates ATP
h. pigments arranged in photosystems
i. electrons from Photosystem II flow via the electron chain to Photosystem I
j. electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP
k. ATP and reduced NADP used in the light independent reactions/Calvin cycle
l. carbohydrate/glucose/carbon compounds produced containing energy

a. (chlorophyll/pigments/antenna complex) in photosystem II absorb light;

b. light/photoactivation produces an excited/high energy/free electron;
c. electrons pass from carrier to carrier/along electron transport chain/e.t.c.;
d. protons pumped across thylakoid membrane/into thylakoid space;
e. ATP produced (by the light dependent reactions);
f. ATP production by chemiosmosis/by ATP synthase/ATP synthetase;
g. electrons from photosystem II passed to photosystem I;
h. light/photoactivation excites electrons in photosystem I (to higher energy level);
i. production of NADPH/reduction of NADP(+) (using electrons from photosystem I);
j. electrons from photolysis (needed) for photosystem II;
k. oxygen from photolysis is a waste product/by-product/passes out/excreted;
l. in cyclic photophosphorylation electrons from photosystem I return to it;

a. photophosphorylation is the production of ATP;

b. (some of the) light absorbed by chlorophyll / photosystem II;
c. photolysis/splitting of water separation of hydrogen ion from its electron;
d. the electron transport system moves the electrons through a series of carriers;
e. (electron transport system occurs) in the thylakoid membrane;
f. electron transport linked to movement of protons into thylakoid space;
g. a proton gradient builds up (in the thylakoid space);
h. small thylakoid space enhances the gradient;
i. hydrogen ions move by diffusion through the ATP synthase;
j. ADP + inorganic phosphate (Pi) forms ATP;
k. (the kinetic energy from) movement of hydrogen ions (through ATP synthase) generates ATP;
l. ATP synthase is a protein complex in the thylakoid membrane;
m. formation of proton gradient / ATP synthesis linked to electron transport is chemiosmosis;
induced fit model; (do not accept lock and key hypothesis)
accounts for ability of some enzymes to bind to several substrates;
enzyme with active site to which substrate(s) binds;
enzyme active site and substrate do not match up exactly;
enzyme-substrate complex forms;
enzyme changes shape once bound / enzyme moulds to substrate/ hand in glove;
change in shape strains bonds/facilitates bonds breaking/product formation;
reduces activation energy;
once reaction is complete, products leave and enzyme can work again;

1 ATP formed per pyruvate each turn (by substrate-level phosphorylation);

reduced NAD/NADH + H+ and FADH2 enter electron transport chain/ETC;

a. occurs in stroma (of chloroplast);

b. energy/ATP and NADPH provided by the light-dependent reactions;

c. Calvin cycle;

d. carbon dioxide fixed to RuBP / carboxylation of RuBP/ribulose bisphosphate;

e. by RuBP carboxylase/rubisco;

f. forms unstable 6C compound / forms 6C compound which splits;

g. glycerate 3-phosphate (is produced by carbon fixation);

h. (glycerate phosphate) to triose phosphate/3C sugar by reduction/adding hydrogen;

i. using NADPH/reduced NADP;

j. triose phosphate/3C sugar converted to form hexose/glucose (phosphate);

k. most/5/6 of triose phosphate used for regeneration of RuBP;

l. ATP used to regenerate RUBP/convert glycerate 3-phosphate to triose phosphate;

a. outer membrane and inner membrane shown as two separate lines;

b. inter-membrane space / space between inner and outer membranes;

c. cristae (shown as projections of inner membrane);

d. matrix;

e. (70S) ribosomes (shown as dots in the matrix);

g. electrons (from water) replace lost electrons in photosystem II;
h.
to electrons from
form hexose photosystem II pass6-phosphate;
diphosphate/glucose (through carriers) to photosystem I;
i. electrons
requires ATP;from photosystem I pass to NADP+ (in stroma);
increase in substrate concentration reduces inhibition
glucose/fructose/hexose (diphosphate) converted into /(two)
graphpyruvates/three
showing this; carbon compounds;
accumulation of an end-product can inhibit the first enzyme of the sequence/ pathway;
using energy from
(an end-product light to joins
inhibitor) provide
an energy;
allosteric site/a site separate from active site;
absorbing light/photoactivation produces
attachment at the allosteric site changes theanshape
excited/high energy/free
of the active site; electron;
absorption of light in photosystem II gives electron to chain of carriers;
photolysis;
H+ pumped across thylakoid membrane;
protons pass through ATP synthetase/synthase;
producing ATP;
chemiosmosis;
(chlorophyll/antenna of) photosystem I absorbs light;
cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation;
(in non-cyclic photophosphorylation) photolysis of water produces H+/O2/e–;
in cyclic photophosphorylation electron returns to photosystem I;

example of competitive; (e.g. malonate competes with succinate dehydrogenase)

example of non-competitive; (e.g. opioids inhibit nitric oxide synthase)
Award [2 max] for examples and [1] for each correct paired statements up to [3 max].

this splits into (two molecules of) glycerate-3-phosphate/GP;

graph
ATP andwithNADPH
correctly labelledinaxes
produced showing relationship
light-dependent reaction;between temperature and rate of
photosynthesis;
transpiration rate increases as temperature rises;
Unit 9: Plant Biology

18 Describe the roles of the shoot apex in the growth of plants (5)

Outline the process used to load organic compounds into phloem

18
sieve tubes (3)
 Outline how plants make use of the different wavelengths of light
18
(4)

18 Explain how organic compounds are transported within plants (7)

17 Draw a labelled diagram of the internal structure of a seed. (3)
17 Explain the process of water uptake and transport by plants. (8)
Describe the transport of organic compounds in vascular plants.
16
(4)
Outline three processes required for successful reproduction of
16 In hot, dry conditions(3)plants lose water rapidly due to transpiration.
angiospermophyta.
16 Explain how the structures and processes of the plant allow this
Explain
water tohow abiotic factors
be replaced. (8) affect the rate of transpiration in
15
terrestrial plants. (8)
15 Explain how minerals move into plants. (8)
Outline the conditions needed for the germination of a typical
15
seed.
Outline(3)
the metabolic processes that occur in starchy seeds during
13
germination. (6)
13 Outline where and how energy is stored in plants (4)
13 Describe how water is carried through a flowering plant. (6)
Explain the processes by which minerals are absorbed from the
12
soil into the roots. (8)
12 Describe how plants carry out gas exchange in the leaves. (5)
12 Explain the role of limiting factors in photosynthesis. (8)
12 Outline pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal. (4)
Explain how water is moved from roots to leaves in terrestrial
12
plants. (8)
11 Draw the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll. (4)
Outline how the glucose produced as a result of photosynthesis is
11
transported and transpiration
Define the term stored in plants.
and (6)
explain the factors that can affect
11
transpiration
Photosynthesisin aand
typical terrestrialoccur
transpiration plant.in(9)
leaves. Explain how
10
temperature affects these processes. (8)
10 Auxin is a protein. Explain its role in phototropism. (8)
a. shoot apex is an «apical» meristem/has undifferentiated cells

b. mitosis «in shoot apex»

c. cell division/cytokinesis/cells produced «in shoot apex»

d. cell elongation «in shoot apex»

e. stem/shoot growth «due to the cell division and elongation in the shoot apex»

f. produces auxin

g. auxin stimulates growth/cell elongation

h. growth towards light

i. differentiation of cells «produced by the shoot apex»

j. leaf initiation/leaf development begins/leaf «primordia» formation «at shoot apex»

k. flowers produced «by shoot apex»

a. active transport/loading of sucrose/amino acids/organic metabolites

b. sucrose moves by apoplastic / symplastic routes

c. «loading» at source into companion cells «of sieve tubes»

d. movement «of sucrose» through plasmodesmata

e. high concentration of solutes in phloem leads to water movement by osmosis

a. light used in photosynthesis/light-dependent reactions/
photolysis/photosystems/photophosphorylation/excitation of electrons/switch to flowering

b. chlorophyll absorbs red AND blue light (more)

c. chlorophyll/leaf/plant reflects/does not absorb/does not use green light

d. absorption spectrum of chlorophyll has peaks in the red and blue/sketch graph to show
this

e. action spectrum shows which wavelengths plants use in photosynthesis/sketch graph of

action spectrum showing peaks in the blue and red

f. accessory/other (named) photosynthetic pigments absorb different wavelengths/colours

g. violet is the shortest wavelength and red the longest

h. red light and far red/infra-red absorbed to measure length of light/dark periods

f. loading (of sugars/organic

plumule/embryo compounds)
shoot shown byaactive
tapering to shoottransport
tip «in a monocot seed»
potential
c. seed coat/testa shown with a double line
transport/using ATP
h. cohesion/hydrogen bonds between water molecules «allows water to be pulled up in xylem»
e. high solute happens
c. fertilization concentration causes water
after pollination to enter by
/ fertilisation is osmosis
joining of(at source)
gametes

Water absorbed in roots by osmosis

g. more transpiration/water
f. minerals enter the plant through loss asroots;
wind (speed) increases;
g. by active transport / use of ATP;
c.
h. suitable
branchingtemperature for enzymesurface
of roots increases activity;area for absorption of minerals;
d. each type of seed has specific temperature
d. gibberellin stimulates the production of amylase; requirements / temperature requirements ensure that
e. amylase digests/hydrolyses starch to
c. (starch stored) in seeds/storage roots/stem tubers;maltose;
carriedas
d. stored through xylem vessels;
lipids/oils;
e. transpiration is the loss of water (vapour) from leaves and stems / stomata;
fungal hyphae help
f. (transpiration) to absorb
creates minerals/phosphate;
suction/pull/negative pressure;
minerals absorbed by active transport;
photosynthesis maintains concentration gradients/high O2 and low CO2 in the leaf;
light
guardintensity
cells openaffects
the the light-dependent
stomata during the day reactions/production
/ close the stomataof at
ATP/NADPH;
night;
temperature limiting at low and high temperatures;
male and female gametes/nuclei join/fuse (in the ovule/ovary) during fertilization;
optimum
the ovarytemperature
matures intowith lower rates above and below plateau / graph to show this;
a fruit;
adhesion water to
dispersal of seeds the inside
depends on of
thethe xylem helps move water up;
fruit;
labelled
cohesiony-axis:
of water absorbance / % absorption;
to itself enhances water movement up the xylem;
peak
activebetween
process 400 and 500
/ requires nm / blue light;
energy;
peak
from between
source to 600
sink;and 700 nm / red light;
stomata/transpiration;
source
stomata isopen
photosynthetic
to allow tissue/leaves;
gaseous exchange/entry of CO2;between temperature and rate of
graph with correctly labelled axes showing relationship
abscisic acid
photosynthesis; stimulates closing of stomata;
auxin makes rate
transpiration cellsincreases
enlarge/grow; as temperature rises;
gene expression also altered by auxin to promote cell growth;
Phloem sieve tubes use active transport to load organic compounds.
Sucrose is the main organic compound. H+ ions are pumped from inside the
cell to outside the cell using ATP. This causes a hydrogen ion gradient to
form between outside and inside the cell. The hydrogen diffuses back with
sucrose down the concentration gradient using a co-transporter protein
concentration. Minerals such as potassium, phosphate, nitrate can be either
dissolved in water and then be transported or some can be transported
Unit 11: Animal Physiology

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is a peptide hormone that is

19HL produced in the hypothalamus. Explain its action in the
human body (8)

Explain how blood solute concentrations are kept within

19
narrow limits in the human body (7)
 Explain the production and role of antibodies in defense against
18
bacterial pathogens in humans. (8)

18 Explain the process of muscle contraction. (8)

Describe the process of spermatogenesis leading to the

18
production
Compare andof four sperm
contrast thecells in humans
processes (4)
of spermatogenesis and
17
oogenesis. (8)
17 Explain how insects excrete nitrogenous wastes. (8)
17 Explain muscle contraction. (8)
17 Explain the production of antibodies. (7)
Describe the different cell types in the seminiferous tubules that
17
are involvedbetween
Distinguish in the process of spermatogenesis.
the composition of the blood(4)
of the renal
16
artery
Explainand
howthe blood
the of theofrenal
structure vein. (3) and its associated blood
the nephron
16
vessels enable the kidney to carry out its functions. (8)
15 Draw a labelled diagram of a mature human egg. (5)
15 Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a sarcomere. (5)
15 Explain how an impulse passes along the axon of a neuron (8)
Explain the role of the nephron in maintaining the water balance of
15
the
Drawblood in the human
a labelled diagrambody.
of the(8)
human adult male reproductive
15
system. (5)

15 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis (8)

15 Explain how skeletal muscle contracts. (8)

15 Describe how spermatogenesis occurs in humans. (6)
15 Explain how the nephron changes the composition of blood. (7)
Explain the roles of the structures in the kidney that maintain the
13
water balance of the blood in humans. (8)
13 Outline the principles that form the basis of immunity. (6)
Some prokaryotes cause infectious disease in humans. Explain
13
the principles of vaccination (8)
13 Explain the structure and role of the placenta. (8)
12 Describe the process of fertilization in humans (6)
Explain how the structure and function of the placenta helps to
12
maintain pregnancy (8)
12 Outline the hormonal control of the process of birth (4)
Explain the processes occurring in the kidney that contribute to
12
osmoregulation (8) muscle contracts, including the interaction of
Explain how skeletal
12
these proteins. (8)
12 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis (8)

12 Describe the role of ADH in osmoregulation (4)

Explain how the kidney helps to retain useful substances in the
11
blood and eliminate substances which the body does not need (8)
11 Describe the production of semen. (6)
11 Explain the structure and function of the placenta. (8)
11 Outline the hormonal control of birth. (4)
11 Outline the role of hormones in the process of birth in humans (4)
11 Explain
Explain the
the principles
processesofoccurring
vaccination (9)kidney that cause
in the
10 differences in the concentrations of these solutes between blood
Explain
plasma, why diabetes
glomerular couldand
filtrate be urine.
detected(8) through the analysis of
10
urine. (8)
10 Draw a labelled diagram of a mature spermn (5)
a. ADH plays a role in osmoregulation/regulating blood solute concentration
b. acts on the collecting ducts of the kidney
c. acts in «late» distal convoluted tubule
d. hypothalamus detects plasma/blood osmolarity/solute concentration
e. if plasma/blood is too concentrated/hypertonic, «posterior» pituitary releases ADH
f. ADH stimulates insertion of aquaporins/water channels / increases permeability of
collecting duct
g. water moves «through aquaporins» by osmosis into the medulla/blood
h. urine becomes more concentrated/smaller volume
i. negative feedback occurs
j. if blood is hypotonic no ADH is released
k. water is not reabsorbed from the collecting ducts/permeability of the collecting duct
decreases
l. urine becomes more dilute/less concentrated / higher volume

a. solute concentration of blood monitored by the brain/hypothalamus

b. pituitary gland secretes ADH
c. ADH secreted when solute concentration/osmolarity is too high/a person is
dehydrated/OWTTE
d. collecting duct more permeable to water
e. «more» aquaporins/opens aquaporins «in the plasma membrane of collecting duct cells»
f. «more» water reabsorbed «into the medulla»
g. medulla is hypertonic/hyperosmotic «so water can be reabsorbed from filtrate»
h. small volume of urine/concentrated urine produced «with ADH»
i. no/little/less ADH secreted if «blood» solute concentration is too low
j. collecting duct less permeable to water/less water reabsorbed/large volume of urine
produced/ dilute urine produced «with low/no ADH»
k. insulin causes blood glucose «concentration» to be reduced
l. glucose stored as glycogen in the liver
m. glucagon causes blood glucose «concentration» to be increased
n. negative feedback
a. specific immune response/antibody production as a consequence of the presence of bacterial
antigens
b. macrophage / phagocyte ingests bacterial pathogen displaying bacterial antigens on surface
c. attached to major histocompatibility/MHC molecules
d. helper T cell activated by presentation of antigen on surface of macrophage
e. activated helper T cell binds to B cell specific to the antigen
f. stimulated B cell undergoes repeated mitotic/cell divisions
g. «cells enlarge and differentiate» to form clone of plasma cells
h. plasma cells produce specific antibodies
i. antibodies bind to bacteria making them easier to digest by white cells
OR
opsonization
OR
agglutination
j. (some antibodies combined with antigen) activate a complement cascade to kill bacteria directly
k. some antibodies act as antitoxins / neutralize toxins / change chemical structure of toxins
l. once begun, antibody production lasts for several days until all antigens destroyed
m. memory cells remain in blood giving extended immunity

a. muscle fibre contains many myofibrils ✔

b. made up of sarcomeres/labelled diagram showing one or more sarcomeres ✔
c. nerve impulse/signal from (motor) neuron causes release of calcium (ions)/Ca2+ ✔
d. calcium (ions)/Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum ✔
e. calcium (ions)/Ca2+ link to troponin ✔
f. tropomyosin moves to expose actin binding sites ✔
g. ATP hydrolysis/ATP to ADP and phosphate/release of phosphate from ATP ✔
h. ATP binds to myosin heads and causes them to cock/change angle/release/gain
energy ✔
i. myosinheadsbind/formcross-bridgestoactin✔
j. myosinheadspushonactinandthendetachfromactin✔
k. actin moved towards centre of sarcomere/sliding of filaments ✔
l. sarcomerebecomesshorter(resultinginmusclecontraction)✔

out the second division ✔

d.
e. both involve
meiosis «two divisions
produces of» meiosis
haploid cells/spermatids ✔
OR
e. both involve differentiation to produce a gamete
release
activeoftransport
calcium of
from sarcoplasmic
ions/Na+/K+ intoreticulum
Malpighian tubules

f. antigens of a pathogen correspond to a specific T lymphocytes/cells

OR
d. secondary spermatocytes divide by meiosis II into spermatids «1n»
d. lessproteins
pump glucoseto
in reabsorb
renal veinspecific solutes «in proximal convoluted tubule»

Water
e. reabsorbed
plasma membranein descending
– shown aslimb «of loop
alines
single of Henle»
line and
c. actin (filaments) – drawn as thin attached toapproximately
Z lines; circular overall;

d. myosin (filaments) – drawn as thick lines interdigitating with thin/actin filaments;

f.
f. ifADH
neuron is stimulated/threshold
moves aquaporins into the potential/–50mV is reached
membranes (of cells sodium
in the tubule ion channels open;
wall);

d.
g. sperm duct/vas
more water deferensfrom
reabsorbed – double line connecting
filtrate/into blood due testis/epididymis
to ADH; to urethra;
e. seminal vesicles – sac shown branched off sperm duct (not off the urethra);
a. both produce haploid cells / both produce (mature/male/female) gametes;
b. both have mitosis at start/in epithelium / both involve mitosis and meiosis;
c. both have cell growth before meiosis;
d. both involve differentiation (to produce a specialised gamete);

f. myosin heads bind to sites on actin/form cross-bridges;

g.
e. myosin (head) moves
these secondary actin filament
spermatocytes using energy
go through from
meiosis II; ATP;
e. as filtrate moves
f. to produce spermatids;through the nephron (tubule), water is returned to the blood (by osmosis);
f. glucose/nutrients is returned to blood by active transport (and diffusion) / selective reabsorption;
ascending loop (ofconvoluted
g. in the proximal Henle) impermeable
tubule; to water;
complementary
Na+/NaCl actively B-cell becomesout
transported activated/stimulated
of (thick portion of)by T-helper limb;
ascending cells;
activated B-cell increases
g. which activate B-cells; in size and divides by mitosis / creates clone of B-cells;
B-cells differentiate into plasma cells
h. B-cells divide to form clones/memory cells; and memory cells; (both needed) plasma cells secrete specific
f. blood of fetus and mother flow close to each other
i. B-cells divide to form plasma cells/antibody producing cells; (but no mixing);
digestion
g. materials of zona pellucida;
exchanged/diffuse (through membranes) between mother and fetal blood;
plasma membranes of sperm and
antibodies from mother’s blood transferred egg fuse;to fetal blood (through umbilical vein);
sperm nucleus enters egg;
waste products transferred from fetal blood to maternal blood (through umbilical artery);
oxytocin
embryonic produced by pituitary gland;
tissue invades/grows into the uterine wall;
oxytocin causes contractions of uterus;
ADH is released when blood too concentrated/too little water/hypertonic;
ADH makes theADP
ATP becomes collecting
causingduct moreheads
myosin permeable to water;
to change angle/become cocked;
(myosin) heads attach to (new) actin sites/form cross-bridge;
produced/released when water in blood is too low;
(where therethe
it increases is) permeability
selective reabsorption;
of the collecting ducts / increase in the reabsorption of water;
(in PCT) all glucose/amino acids are reabsorbed;
seminal vesicles
(in PCT most) addreabsorbed;
water fluid;
inter-villous
(seminal) fluidspaces/sinuses
rich in fructose;through which mother’s blood flows;
fetal and mother’s blood do
(oxytocin) released from (posterior)not mix pituitary;
/ small distance between fetal and mother’s blood;
transfer
oxytocin stimulates uterus contraction; mother to fetus;
of foods/nutrients/glucose from
from
cervixpituitary;
widens/dilates;
this
that stimulates contractions
produce specific of uterus;
antibodies;
by active
(upon transport
second / microvilli
exposure) increase
production the surfaceisarea;
of antibodies much faster;
little/no urea reabsorbed
through wall ofincreases
concentration / in the proximal convoluted
/ urea more tubules;in urine than in blood plasma;
concentrated
blood glucose concentration higher than normal
nucleus; (occupying more than half the width or length in diabetics;
of head)
mitochondria; (as repetitive structures inside membrane of mid piece)