Unit 1: Cell Biology

Year Paper 2 Questions Mark-scheme Answers

a. facilitated diffusion by channel proteins

b. active transport by protein pumps OR protein pumps eg sodium-potassium
c. cell recognition by glycoproteins/protein receptors
19SL Describe the functions of proteins in cell membranes. (4)
d. communication/receptors for hormones/signal molecules
e. cell adhesion
f. allow up to one additional mark for AHL material

a. simple diffusion is passive movement of molecules/ions along a concentration gradient

b. facilitated diffusion is passive movement of molecules/ions along a concentration gradient through
a protein channel «without use of energy»
c. osmosis is the passage of water through a membrane from lower solute concentration to higher
d. active transport is movement of molecules/ions against the concentration gradient «through
Outline four types of membrane transport, including their use of
19HL membrane pumps» with the use of ATP/energy
energy (4)
e. endocytosis is the infolding of membrane/formation of vesicles to bring molecules into cell with
use of energy OR exocytosis is the infolding of membrane/formation of vesicles to release molecules
from cell with use of energy
f. chemiosmosis occurs when protons diffuse through ATP synthase «in membrane» to produce
ATP

a. ribosomes on RER synthesize/produce polypeptides/proteins

b. proteins from RER for secretion/export/use outside cell/for lysosomes
Outline the functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
19HL c. Golgi alters/modifies proteins/example of modification
apparatus (3)
d. vesicles budded off Golgi transport proteins «to plasma membrane»
OR exocytosis/secretion of proteins in vesicles from the Golgi

a. receptor/binding site for hormone/neurotransmitter

b. cell-to-cell communication / cell recognition
c. channels «for passive transport» / facilitated diffusion
17HL Outline four different functions of membrane proteins. (4) d. pumps / active transport
e. cell adhesion
f. «immobilized» enzymes/enzymes embedded in the membrane
g. electron transport / electron carriers

a. mitosis is the division of a nucleus to produce two genetically identical daughter nuclei
b. consists of four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
c. cytokinesis occurs after mitosis
17HL Outline the cell cycle. (4) d. interphase is the metabolically active phase between cell divisions OWTTE
e. the interphase consists of the S phase, G1 and G2
f. DNA replicates in the S phase
g. cell growth/preparation for mitosis/duplication of organelles in G1 and G2
 Phospholipid bilayer drawn and labelled with at least one protein labelled and drawn embedded
either in one or both halves of the bilayer
Reject if only peripheral proteins are shown.
Integral/intrinsic/transmembrane/carrier/pump/channel/pore protein labelled and shown crossing the
Draw a labelled diagram that shows the positions of proteins within membrane
16HL
the cell membrane. (3) Extrinsic/peripheral protein labelled and shown on membrane surface/not embedded in bilayer
Glycoprotein labelled and shown integral and with a clear carbohydrate region projecting out on one
side of the membrane
The carbohydrate should be shown differently from the protein but need not be labelled specifically.
The protein part can be embedded in one or both phospholipid layers.

Cell wall shown with two continuous lines to indicate the thickness
Plasma membrane/cell membrane shown as a single continuous line
Accept inner line of wall as membrane if clearly labelled.
Draw a labelled diagram of a eukaryotic plant cell as seen in an
16HL Nuclear membrane/nucleus shown with double membrane and nuclear pores
electron micrograph. (4)
Vacuole «membrane»/tonoplast shown as a single continuous line
Chloroplast/plastid shown with a double line to indicate the envelope and thylakoids/grana
Mitochondrion shown with double membrane/cristae

a. interphase is the longest phase;

b. interphase includes G1, S and G2;
c. in G1 and G2 /G phases, cell performs normal functions/protein synthesis/cell grows/organelles
are replicated;
15SL Outline the stages of the cell cycle. (5) d. S/synthesis phase when the DNA replicates;
e. mitosis is when nucleus/genetic material divides;
f. named/described stages of mitosis;
g. cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm / formation of two daughter cells;
Award [3 max] if all three stages (interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis) are not mentioned.

a. (plasma) membrane encloses/engulfs solid particles/droplets of fluid/molecules;

b. fluidity of the membrane allows endocytosis;
c. (plasma) membrane forms pit/forms indentation/pulled inwards/invaginates;
d. membrane pinches off /seals back on itself/edges fuse;
15HL Describe the process of endocytosis. (5) e. vesicle/vacuole formed;
f. inside of plasma membrane becomes outside of vesicle membrane / converse;
g. vesicle breaks away from plasma membrane/moves into cytoplasm;
h. active process / endocytosis/vesicle formation requires energy;
Accept any of the above points clearly described in an annotated diagram.

a. cell wall – uniformly thick and drawn outside the plasma membrane;
b. plasma membrane – a continuous single line;
c. cytoplasm/cytosol;
d. nucleoid/(naked) DNA – shown as a tangle of thread or irregular shape without a nuclear
membrane;
15SL Draw a labelled diagram of a prokaryotic cell. (5) e. (70S) ribosomes – drawn as a small circle or dark dot;
f. pili – hair like structures / flagellum – shown to be longer than any pili;
g. plasmid – circular ring of DNA;
h. capsule – drawn outside the cell wall;
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and labelled which conforms to the italicized guidelines
given above.
 phospholipid structure
hydrophobic tail/hydrophilic head
head made from glycerol and phosphate
tail made from two fatty acids
saturated/ unsaturated fatty acid (in tail)

arrangement in membrane
phospholipids form a bilayer
heads face outside the membrane/ tails face inside the membrane/ hydrophic interior/ hydrophilic
exterior of membrane
Explain how the properties of phospholipids help to maintain the
15SL
structure of cell membranes. (8) A suitable annotated diagram may incorporate all or many of the above points. Award 5 marks
maximum for a suitable diagram that is labelled correctly.

phospholipids held together by hydrophobic interactions

phospholipid layers are stabilized by interaction of hydrophilic heads and surrounding water
phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity/ flexibility
fluidity/ flexibility helps membranes to be (functionally) stable
phospholipids with short fatty acids/ unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid
fluidity is important in breaking and remaking membranes (e.g. endocytosis/ exocytosis)
phospholipids can move about/ move horizontally/ "flip flop" to increase fluidity
hydrophilic/ hydrophobic layers restrict entry/ exit of substances

a. channel proteins allow diffusion/osmosis/passive transport;

b. large/polar molecules cannot cross the (hydrophobic) membrane freely;
c. facilitated diffusion involves moving molecules through proteins down their concentration
gradient/without requiring ATP;
d. aquaporins (specific integral membrane proteins) facilitate the movement of water
Outline the role of proteins in active and passive transport of
15SL molecules/osmosis;
molecules through membranes. (5)
e. some proteins (for facilitated diffusion) are specific to molecule/ions;
f. active transport involves moving molecules through proteins against their concentration
gradient/requiring ATP;
g. (some) proteins in the membrane are pumps / pumps perform active transport / sodium potassium
pump;

Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
a. phospholipid bilayer – with head and tails;
b. hydrophilic/phosphate/polar heads and hydrophobic/hydrocarbon/fatty acid/non-polar tails
labelled;
Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of the plasma c. integral/intrinsic protein – embedded in the phospholipid bilayer;
15HL
membrane. (5) d. protein channel – integral protein showing clear channel/pore;
e. peripheral/extrinsic protein – not protruding into the hydrophobic region;
f. glycoprotein with carbohydrate attached – carbohydrate should be outside the bilayer;
g. cholesterol – positioned across one half of bilayer and not protruding;
h. thickness indicated (10 nm); (allow answers in the range of 7 nm to 13 nm)
 a. growth phase/G-1: synthesis of proteins/cytoplasm/organelles;
b. synthesis phase/S-phase: replication of DNA;
c. second growth phase/G-2: continued growth of cytoplasm/molecular synthesis/duplication of
organelles;
d. prophase: chromosomes super-coil to prepare for mitosis / nuclear envelope disappears / spindle
fibres form;
e. metaphase: chromosomes line up at equatorial/metaphase plate / spindle fibres attach to
Following germination of seeds, plants undergo a rapid increase in
centromeres/chromosomes;
15HL the number of cells. Describe stages in the cell cycle that result in
f. anaphase: chromatids move along microtubules/spindle fibres move chromatids toward opposite
this increase of cells. (7)
poles;
g. telophase: nuclear membranes form around each cluster of chromosomes;
h. cytokinesis: new plasma membrane forms between the nuclei / cell plate forms;
i. a new cell wall forms;
j. (mitosis) results in two cells with identical nuclei;
Names of phases are required to earn the mark.
Award marks for a clearly drawn correctly annotated diagram.

phospholipid bilayer; (double row of opposing phospholipids, tails to inside)

hydrophilic/phosphate/polar (heads) and hydrophobic/hydrocarbon/fatty acid/nonpolar (tails) labeled;
integral protein; (embedded in the phospholipid bilayer)
Draw a labelled diagram to show the molecular structure of a
13SL protein channel/channel protein; (integral protein showing clear channel/pore)
membrane. (4)
peripheral protein; (shown on surface or slightly embedded on either side)
glycoprotein; (with carbohydrate attached on outer side)
cholesterol; (shown embedded in bilayer and smaller than the hydrophobic tail)

Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labeled.
cell wall; (with some thickness)
plasma membrane; (shown as single line or very thin)
cytoplasm;
pilus/pili; (shown as single lines coming from the cell wall)
Draw a labelled diagram of Escherichia coli as an example of a flagellum/flagella; (thicker and longer than pili and embedded in cell wall)
13HL
prokaryote. (4) 70S ribosomes; (shown as small dots)
nucleoid / naked DNA;
approximate width 0.5 μm / approximate length 2.0 μm;
Award [3 max] if the bacterium drawn does not have the shape of a bacillus (rounded-corner
rectangle with length approximately twice its width).
Award [3 max] if any eukaryotic structures included.

Award [1] for each of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled.

phospholipid bilayer; (double row of opposing phospholipids, tails to inside)

hydrophilic/phosphate/polar (heads) and hydrophobic/hydrocarbon/fatty acid/nonpolar (tails) labeled;

Draw a labelled diagram to show the molecular structure of a
integral protein; (embedded in the phospholipid bilayer)
membrane. (4)
13HL
protein channel/channel protein; (integral protein showing clear channel/pore)

peripheral protein; (shown on surface or slightly embedded on either side)

glycoprotein; (with carbohydrate attached on outer side)

cholesterol; (shown embedded in bilayer and smaller than the hydrophobic tail)
 lysosome:
a. (from Golgi apparatus) with digestive enzymes / break down food/organelles/ cell;

Golgi apparatus:
b. site that processes/modifies/packages and releases proteins;
State the functions of the following organelles of a eukaryotic
free ribosomes:
13SL animal cell: lysosome, Golgi apparatus, free ribosomes, plasma
c. site of synthesis of proteins (released to cytoplasm);
membrane, rough endoplasmic reticulum. (5)
plasma membrane:
d. controls entry and exit of materials/substances in cell;

rough endoplasmic reticulum:

e. synthesis and transport of proteins; (both needed)
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled, up to [4 max].
a. cell wall – a uniformly thick wall;
b. pili – hair-like structures connected to cell wall / flagellum – at least length of the cell;
c. plasma/cell membrane – represented by a continuous single line; (may be labelled as the
innermost wall line)
13HL Draw a labelled diagram of a prokaryotic cell. (4)
d. ribosomes (70S) – drawn as small discrete dots;
e. naked DNA/nucleoid – region with DNA not enclosed in membrane;
f. plasmid – circular ring of DNA;
g. cytoplasm – the non-structural material within the cell;
Award [2 max] if any eukaryotic structure is shown.
Must be description of types not a list.
a. (simple) diffusion when molecules move down a concentration gradient directly through
membrane/unaided by carrier molecule;
b. (passive transport by) facilitated diffusion through (specific) channel proteins;
Describe four different types of transport of substances across a
13HL c. osmosis of water via aquaporins/from area of low solute concentration to area of high solute
membrane. (4)
concentration;
d. active transport against a concentration gradient using protein pumps/ATP;
e. vesicles attach to plasma membrane and release materials to exterior/ exocytosis;
f. cell membrane invaginates/pinches off to bring material to interior / endocytosis / phagocytosis;
Award any of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
cell wall; (shown as a double line)
plasma membrane; (less than the width of wall) (reject inner surface of cell wall labelled as cell
membrane)
Draw a labelled diagram of the ultrastructure of a prokaryote. (4)
nucleoid/(region containing) naked DNA (distinguished from rest of cytoplasm)
12HL
ribosome; (dots in cytoplasm)
cytoplasm;
flagella; (at least a quarter as long as the cell)
pili; (less than a quarter as long as the cell)
Award [3 max] if any specifically eukaryotic structure shown.
(stem cells) have/retain the capacity to divide;
can be used to produce cell cultures/large number of identical cells;
can be used to repair/replace damaged/lost cells/tissue;
Describe the characteristics of stem cells that make them (stem cells) are undifferentiated / have not yet differentiated/specialized;
12HL
potentially useful in medicine. (5) can differentiate/specialize in different ways / are pluripotent/totipotent;
can be used to form a variety of different tissues / form organs;
used in medical research;
used in treatment of (named) disease;
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
phospholipid bilayer – with head and tails;
hydrophilic / phosphate / polar heads and hydrophobic / hydrocarbon / fatty acid / non-polar tails
labelled;
integral/intrinsic protein – embedded in the phospholipid bilayer;
11SL Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of membranes. (6) protein channel – integral protein showing clear channel/pore;
peripheral/extrinsic protein – on the surface;
glycoprotein with carbohydrate attached; (carbohydrate should project outwardly from membrane
protein)
cholesterol – shown embedded in bilayer; (must appear in hydrophobic region)
thickness indicated (10 nm); (allow answers in the range of 7 nm to 13 nm)
 diffusion/facilitated diffusion and osmosis are passive;
do not require energy/ATP;
diffusion is movement from high to low concentration/down a (concentration) gradient;
facilitated diffusion uses (protein) channels/carrier proteins;
osmosis is water movement from lower to higher solute concentration / from higher to lower water
potential/concentration;
across a partially permeable membrane;
Explain passive transport and active transport across membranes. active transport/formation of vesicles require energy;
11SL
(8) in the form of ATP;
active transport moves materials up/against the (concentration) gradient/from low to high
concentration;
protein pumps required;
endocytosis into cells / exocytosis out of cells;

example of active or passive transport; (e.g. sodium potassium pump for active transport / oxygen
exchange in alveoli for passive transport)
G1 the cell grows/duplication of organelles;
S is synthesis stage when DNA is synthesized/replicated;
G2 the chromosomes begin condensing/preparation for cell division;
11HL Outline the various stages of the cell cycle. (4)
G1 , S and G2 make up interphase;
during mitosis nuclear division occurs/all four stages listed;
during cytokinesis cytoplasm/cell divides/daughter cells formed;
sequence of stages is prophase → metaphase → anaphase → telophase;
chromosomes condense/supercoil/become shorter and fatter in prophase;
spindle microtubules grow (from poles to equator) in prophase/metaphase;
nuclear membrane breaks down in prophase/metaphase;
spindle microtubules attach to the centromeres/chromosomes in metaphase;
chromosomes line up at equator in metaphase;
10SL Describe the events that occur during mitosis. (9)
centromeres divide / (paired) chromatids separate / chromosomes separate into two chromatids in
metaphase/anaphase;
(sister) chromatids/chromosomes pulled to opposite poles in anaphase;
spindle microtubules disappear in telophase;
nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes/chromatids in telophase;
chromosomes/chromatids decondense in telophase;
(In the table below, information from both boxes on same line is needed for 1 mark.)

Differences [max 4]:

10SL Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (5)

Similarities: (Award 1 mark for any combination of two different items [max 2])

cytoplasm/plasma membrane/contains DNA/contains ribosomes

 Compare simple diffusion with facilitated diffusion as mechanisms
10SL
to transport solutes across membranes. (5)

endocytosis occurs when a membrane encloses a target particle;

fluidity of membrane permits movement of membrane;
membrane sinks inwardly/forms pit/invaginates to enclose particle;
membrane seals back on itself / edges fuse;
one membrane layer / two phospholipid layers enclose particle making vesicle;
inner phospholipid layer of (original) membrane becomes outer phospholipid layer of vesicle
10SL Describe the process of endocytosis. (5) membrane;
outer phospholipid layer of (original) membrane becomes inner phospholipid layer of vesicle
membrane;
vesicle breaks away from membrane/moves into cytoplasm;
changes in membrane shape require energy;
specific example of endocytosis (e.g. pinocytosis, phagocytosis);
Accept any of the above points in an annotated diagram.
vesicles carry material to plasma membrane;
vesicle fuses with membrane;
(by joining of) phospholipid bilayers;
aided by the fluidity of the membrane;
material released/expelled from the cell;
10HL Outline, with an example, the process of exocytosis. (5) membrane flattens;
name of example e.g. exocytosis of neurotransmitter / exocrine secretion/endocrine secretion /
hormone secretion / release of cortical granules;
outline of example: (in the presence of calcium), neurotransmitter vesicles release their contents into
the synapse / hormones released from one cell have an effect on another cell etc.;
Accept these points if clearly made in an annotated diagram. [4 max] if no example given.
eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes;
mitochondria/chloroplasts evolved from (independent) prokaryotic cells;
taken in by larger (heterotrophic) cell by endocytosis;
theory supported by characteristics of chloroplasts/mitochondria;

[2 max] for mitochondria/chloroplast characteristics:

mitochondria/chloroplasts have naked DNA;
Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.
mitochondria/chloroplasts divide/carry out fission;
mitochondria/chloroplasts have 70S ribosomes / synthezise own proteins;
mitochondria/chloroplasts have double membranes;
cristae similar to mesosomes / thylakoid have similar structures in prokaryotes;
but theory cannot be falsified as it predicts something occurring in the past;
theory does not explain the origins of cilia/flagella/linear chromosomes/meiosis;
weaker evidence that cilia/flagella evolved from attached bacteria/spirochetes;

Discuss alternative models of membrane structure including
evidence for or against each model. (8)
early evidence showed membranes are partially permeable AND organic solvents penetrate faster
than water ✔
suggests they have non-polar regions ✔
chemical analysis showed membranes consist mainly of proteins and lipids ✔
layer of phospholipids spread over water, orientate themselves into monolayer with
nonpolar/hydrophobic tails out of water and polar/hydrophilic heads in water surface ✔
when shaken with water form micelles/particles with tails inwards away from water ✔
Davson–Danielli model proposed phospholipid bilayer coated with protein molecules
on both surfaces ✔
evidence from electron microscopy «supported Davson–Danielli model» ✔
three-layered structure/ sandwich/railway tracks/two dark bands with a light band between ✔
model could not account for hydrophobic proteins / artifacts due to low resolution ✔
j fluorescent labelling / freeze fracturing later used to investigate membrane structure ✔
k. led to Singer-Nicholson / fluid mosaic model of protein molecules floating in fluid lipid bilayer ✔
l. shows particles/proteins project partially and sometimes right through lipid bilayer ✔
m. indicates peripheral and integral proteins present ✔