Unit 2: Molecular Biology

a. DNA is unwound/strands are separated «by RNA polymerase»

b. new nucleotides attached to template strand «by RNA polymerase»
c. complementary base pairing/base pairing with an example
19SL Outline the stages in the production of mRNA by transcription (4)
OR adenine with thymine/uracil with adenine/cytosine with guanine/guanine with cytosine
d. mRNA detaches from template
e. DNA rewinds

a. axes correctly labelled «wavelength and rate of photosynthesis»

b. 400 and 700 nm as limits
c. correct shape of curve involving two peaks at the correct places, broader in the blue-violet range
Draw a fully labelled graph of the action spectrum for
19HL not starting at zero and a narrower peak in the orange-red range with the trough in the green range
photosynthesis
that does not reach zero
d. peaks of activity at 430 nm AND at 660 nm
e. peaks indicated as «violet» blue light AND peak indicated as «orange» red light

19HL Distinguish between the structures of DNA and RNA (3) A table format is not required but clear distinctions must be apparent.

a. two amino acids, one with NH2/NH3 3 + end and one with COOH/COO– end
b. peptide bond between C=0 and N—H correctly drawn
19HL Draw the structure of a dipeptide (3) c. «chiral» C with H and R group on each amino acid
d. peptide bond labelled/clearly indicated between C terminal of one amino acid and N terminal of
the second amino acid

Explain how hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties contribute to
19HL
the arrangement of molecules in a membrane (7)
a. hydrophilic is attracted to/soluble in water and hydrophobic not attracted/insoluble
b. hydrophilic phosphate/head and hydrophobic hydrocarbon/tail in phospholipids
c. phospholipid bilayer in water/in membranes
d. hydrophilic heads «of phospholipids» face outwards/are on surface
e. hydrophobic tails «of phospholipids» face inwards/are inside/are in core
f. cholesterol is «mainly» hydrophobic/amphipathic so is located among phospholipids/in
hydrophobic region of membrane
g. some amino acids are hydrophilic and some are hydrophobic
h. hydrophobic «amino acids/regions of» proteins in phospholipid bilayer «core»
i. hydrophilic «amino acids/regions of» proteins are on the membrane surface
j. integral proteins are embedded in membranes due to hydrophobic properties/region
OR transmembrane proteins have a hydrophobic middle region and hydrophilic ends
k. peripheral proteins on are on the membrane surface/among phosphate heads due to being
«entirely» hydrophilic OR «carbohydrate» part of glycoproteins is hydrophilic so is outside the
membrane
l. pore of channel proteins is hydrophilic

a. autotrophs perform photosynthesis

b. carbon dioxide and water are the reactants/raw materials required for «photosynthesis»
c. light splits water molecules/causes photolysis
d. «photolysis» releases oxygen as a «waste» product
e. light energy is converted into chemical energy
18SL Explain the process of photosynthesis (8) f. «photosynthesis» produces organic compounds/glucose/carbohydrates
g. photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
h. chlorophyll «photosynthetic pigment» absorbs light
i. different pigments absorb different wavelengths «of light»
j. chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light/ends of the spectrum
k. carbon dioxide concentration/temperature/light intensity are limiting factors

a. translation converts a sequence of mRNA nucleotides/codons to a sequence of amino

acids/polypeptide/protein
b. «triplets of» nucleotides/bases on «activated» tRNAs pair with complementary «triplets of»
Outline how translation depends on complementary base pairing.
17SL nucleotides/bases on mRNA / vice versa
(3)
c. base pairing occurs when adenine/A pairs with uracil/U and guanine/G pairs with cytosine/C
d. specific amino acids are attached to specific of tRNA
e. mRNA has codons AND tRNA has anticodons

a. fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated

b. unsaturated can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated
c. saturated fats have no double bonds/have maximum number of hydrogen atoms
OR
unsaturated fatty acids have «at least one» double C=C bond
OR
polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond / OWTTE
Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including the role d. cis-form has hydrogen atoms on same side of carbon double bond
17SL
of Taq DNA polymerase. (4) OR
cis-form has bend at carbon double bond
e. trans-form has hydrogens on opposite sides of carbon double bond
OR
trans-form makes a straight carbon chain
f. length of hydrocarbon chain can vary
OR
position/number of carbon double bonds can vary
 a. COO– or COOH group at one end
Draw a molecular diagram of an amino acid to show its general
17SL b. NH2 or NH3+ at the other
structure. (3)
c. CH in middle with H or R group attached

Structure:

a. «starch» is a polysaccharide/is composed of glucose molecules

b. contains amylose which is a linear/helical molecule
c. contains amylopectin which is a branched molecule
17SL Describe the structure and function of starch in plants. (3)
Function:

d. storage of glucose/energy in plants

e. storage form that does not draw water

a. light is absorbed by chlorophyll

OR
chlorophyll absorbs more red and blue light
b. «absorbed» light energy is converted to chemical energy
17SL Outline the production of carbohydrates in photosynthesis. (4) c. some of the energy is used for production of ATP
d. water molecules are split/photolysis
e. produces oxygen «as waste product»/hydrogen/NADPH
f. plants absorb/fix CO2 «from air or water»
g. ATP/energy is needed to produce carbohydrates/starch

a. metabolism is all enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell/organism/is anabolism plus catabolism

b. anabolism is synthesis of polymers/complex/larger molecules/larger substances «from smaller
17HL Distinguish between anabolism, catabolism and metabolism. (3) molecules/monomers»
c. catabolism is breaking down «complex» molecules/substances «into simpler/smaller ones/into
monomers»

a. «immumoglobulins are/function as» antibodies

b. variety of binding sites / variable regions for binding
c. specific to antigens on bacteria/viruses/pathogens
d. constant region aids destruction of the bacteria/virus/pathogen
17HL Describe the functioning of immunoglobulins. (3)
e. attracts phagocytes/macrophages to engulf pathogen
f. bursting pathogen cells/agglutination/neutralizing toxins/other example of the action of antibodies

Award marks for an annotated diagram.

Draw molecular diagrams to show the condensation reaction
17HL
between two amino acids to form a dipeptide. (4)
a. each amino acid with a COO–/COOH group at one end AND a NH2/NH3+ at the other
Both needed.
mp a requires the double bond to be shown between the C and O.
b. CH in middle with H or R group attached
c. peptide bond correctly drawn between N and C=0
d. COO–/COOH group at one end of dipeptide AND NH2/NH3+ at other end
Both needed.
e. loss of water

Producers extract phosphates and nitrates from soil. Outline how
16SL
these ions are used in the synthesis of organic molecules. (3)
a. by photosynthesis / using energy from light
b. attached to carbon compounds
c. phosphates used to make phospholipids/nucleotides/nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP
Other phosphorus-containing metabolites are acceptable if verified.
d. nitrates are used to make amino acids/proteins/nucleotides/nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP
Other nitrogen-containing metabolites are acceptable if verified.
e. transported from roots to leaves (in xylem)

Oxygen must be taken up AND carbon dioxide must be released (Both needed)
Gases pass through a cell membrane by simple diffusion
Require a concentration gradient
OR
Outline the process of gas exchange necessary for aerobic
16SL pass from high concentration to low concentration
respiration in a unicellular eukaryotic organism. (3)
Without requiring energy
OR
passive process
Large SA: vol ratio

Catalyse/speed up reactions
Substrate-specific
Lower the activation energy «of a chemical reaction»
Substrate collides with/binds to active site
16HL Outline the action of enzymes. (4) Enzyme–substrate complex formed
OR
transition state formed
OR
bonds in substrate weakened

Draw a labelled diagram of a section of DNA showing four

15SL
nucleotides. (5)
 a. translation is the conversion of base sequence on mRNA into an amino acid sequence / OWTTE;
b. messenger/mRNA attaches to ribosome (small unit);
c. many ribosome/polyribosomes bind to same mRNA;
d. (mRNA) carries codons/triplet of bases each coding for one amino acid;
e. transfer/tRNA each have specific anticodon;
f. tRNA carries specific amino acid;
g. tRNA anticodon binds to codon in the mRNA;
15SL Explain the process of translation in cells. (8) h. to corresponding triplet base/codon by complementary base pairing / OWTTE;
i. a second tRNA (anticodon) binds to next codon;
j. two amino acids bind together / peptide linkage is formed;
k. first tRNA detaches;
l. ribosome moves along mRNA;
m. another tRNA binds to next codon;
n. continues until stop codon is reached;
o. stop codon has no corresponding tRNA (anticodon)/amino acid/causes release of polypeptide;

a. condensation is joining together two amino acids to form a dipeptide;

Outline the production of a dipeptide by a condensation reaction,
15SL
showing the structure of a generalized dipeptide. (5)
b. carboxyl/COOH group of one amino acid reacts with amine/NH2 group of another / diagrams of
two (generalized) amino acids correctly shown;
c. water/H2O is eliminated;
d. diagram of dipeptide correctly shown;
e. peptide/covalent bond is produced / peptide bond correctly labelled;
f. occurs at the ribosomes;

a. coolant in sweat/in transpiration;

b. water has a high heat of vaporisation / heat taken when hydrogen bonds break;
c. water is cohesive so can pulled up/so can be moved under tension in xylem;
d. water is an excellent/universal solvent/dissolves many different substances;
e. medium for transport in blood/xylem/phloem;
15HL Describe the importance of water to living organisms. (5) f. medium for metabolic reactions / (metabolic) reactions happen dissolved in water;
g. surface tension due to cohesion allows organisms to live on water surface;
h. water has high heat capacity so much energy required to change its temperature;
i. ice floats so lakes/oceans do not freeze allowing life under the ice;
j. high heat capacity so stable habitat/so temperature of water changes slowly;
k. used in chemical reactions/photosynthesis/hydrolysis in organisms;
a. (the genetic code is based on) sets of three nucleotides/triplets of bases called codons;
b. bases include adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine in DNA / adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil in RNA; (do not accept ATCG)
c. each codon is code for one amino acid;
Describe the genetic code and its relationship to polypeptides and
15SL d. some codons are (start or) stop codons;
proteins. (5)
e. DNA is transcribed into mRNA by base-pair matching/complementary base pairing;
f. mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids/polypeptide;
g. each gene codes for a polypeptide;
h. polypeptides may be joined/modified to form proteins;
a. (increase in) light (intensity) increases rate (of photosynthesis);
b. until a plateau is reached at higher light intensities/when another factor is limiting;
c. light needed for light dependent reactions/example of light dependent reaction;
d. (increase in) temperature/heat increases the rate (of photosynthesis);
e to an optimum temperature above which the rate drops;
f. temperature/heat affects rate of Calvin cycle/enzyme activity/rubisco activity;
g. (increase in) carbon dioxide (concentration) increases rate (of photosynthesis);
h. until a plateau is reached at higher CO2 levels/when another factor is limiting;
15HL Outline two factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. (5) i. CO2 needed for light independent reactions/Calvin cycle/carboxylation of RuBP/production of
glycerate phosphate;

If the candidate outlines more than two factors, only mark the first two.
Accept the first two points relating to each factor if clearly shown on a graph with both axes
appropriately labelled.
Accept level instead of concentration, intensity or rate.
Do not accept enzyme denaturation as a reason for reductions in photosynthesis at higher
temperatures.
 a. vertical axis labelled as “rate of photosynthesis” and horizontal axis labelled as “light intensity”;
b. drawn showing that at low light intensities, increased intensity leads to increased rate of
photosynthesis (sharply);
Draw an annotated graph of the effects of light intensity on the rate c. drawn with plateau formed at high light intensities;
15HL
of photosynthesis. (4) d. plateau annotated as maximum rate of photosynthesis;
e. curve intersecting horizontal axis at a value above zero;
f. arrows added to axes or student annotates axis with “rate of photosynthesis increases” and “light
intensity increases”
a. O connected to 2 H forming a V shape;
b. line between O and H of same molecule labelled as covalent bond;
Draw a labelled diagram showing the structure of three water c. three water molecules bonded together with dashed/dotted lines between O on one molecule and
15SL-
molecules and how they interact. (5) H on another;
d. dotted/dashed line labelled as hydrogen bond;
e. O labelled as partial negative charge/ and H labelled as partial positivecharge/ ;
correct equation for photosynthesis in words or symbols;
measure production of oxygen;
example of method to measure oxygen production;
(eg count bubbles from water plant/collect oxygen data per unit of time using electronic
sensors/probes)
measure uptake of CO2;
13SL Describe how the rate of photosynthesis can be measured. (6) example of method; (eg method of measuring (aquatic) pH changes/shift per unit time)
measure increase in biomass;
example of method; (eg sample (dry) mass of crop before and after timed period)

not possible to measure water uptake since water is transpired/used in turgidity/many chemical
processes;
another valid method if concept of rate (measurements per time) is included;
enzyme shape is specific to (particular) substrate;
lock and key analogy/model;
example of specific enzyme and substrate;
has specific 3-D/tertiary configuration/3-D/tertiary shape essential to functioning;
Some proteins in membranes act as enzymes. Outline enzyme- active site on enzyme binds to substrate;
13SL
substrate specificity. (6) substrate and active site complementary/fit together;
(substrate and active site) are complementary due to structure/chemical attraction;
enzyme-substrate complex forms;
denaturation changes enzyme’s binding ability (to specific substrate);
Award [6] for the above points clearly shown in an annotated diagram.
solvent: [2 max]
good solvent;
due to polarity of water molecules many different substances dissolve in it;
most chemical reactions of living organisms occur in solution / transport medium;

cohesion: [2 max]
cohesive/cohesion between adjacent water molecules;
due to hydrogen bonds;
long columns of water in xylem/transpiration stream / surface tension;

Water is essential to life on Earth. Outline two properties of water
13HL
that are important for living organisms. (4)
heat: [2 max]
high heat capacity / large amounts of energy needed to change temperature;
energy needed to break hydrogen bonds;
important habitat as temperature more stable / blood disperses heat through body;

cooling: [2 max]
evaporative cooling / high heat of vaporization/latent heat;
heat used to break hydrogen bonds so water can change to gas;
cooling effect of transpiration on leaves/sweat evaporation from skin/dogs panting;

greatest density at 4oC:

allows ice to form on top of water;
fish/living organisms are insulated below; [4 max]

Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship
13HL
between amino acids and polypeptides (4)
Describe the properties of water that make it a useful component
13SL
of blood. (4)
Factor IX is a blood clotting protein which some hemophiliacs lack.
In the future hemophilia could be treated using clotting factors
13HL
synthesized by genetically modified bacteria. Outline the basic 
technique used for this gene transfer. (6)
Outline the difference in absorption of red, blue and green light by
13SL
chlorophyll. (4)
Explain the effect of changes of pH, substrate concentration and
13SL
temperature on enzyme activity. (8)
Distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in
13SL
eukaryotes. (4)
Condensation reactions:
condensation is two molecules joining (by a covalent bond) with the loss of a water molecule;
example of condensation reaction;
formation of peptide bond between amino acids;
(covalent) bond between carboxyl end of one amino acid molecule and amino end of other;
many amino acids joined by condensation to form polypeptide;
Hydrolysis reactions:
hydrolysis is the addition of water to break a large molecule into smaller ones;
polypeptide broken down into amino acids/dipeptides by hydrolysis;
Award any of the above points for a clearly drawn correctly annotated diagram.
a. water is a polar molecule / hydrogen bonding;
b. (makes it) (versatile) solvent;
c. example of dissolved substance (eg salts/proteins or other example);
d. (water is) fluid/liquid at body temperature;
e. example of transported material (eg nutrients/metabolic wastes/gases/hormones/blood cells or
other example);
f. high heat capacity/specific heat allows water to carry heat without warming up;
g. (allows) blood to move heat (for warming/cooling/homeostasis);
a. mRNA/gene coding for factor IX extracted from human cell/tissue;
b. mRNA copied to DNA/cDNA (using reverse transcriptase);
c. plasmids used (for gene transfer);
d. restriction enzyme/endonuclease used to open plasmid/cut DNA;
e. complementary bases/sticky ends on gene and plasmid/link gene to plasmid;
f. sealed using ligase;
g. recombinant plasmid/plasmid containing desired gene taken up by bacteria;
h. isolate/clone the recombinant/transformed bacteria;
i. bacteria cultured/grown in fermenter to produce factor IX;
a. blue and red light absorbed (the most);
b. greatest absorption in blue light;
c. red light absorbed in high amounts;
d. least/no absorption of green light / green light is reflected/transmitted;
pH:
a. enzymes have an optimal pH/work best at a given pH;
b. activity increases as pH gets closer to optimal pH;
c. extreme pH denatures enzymes;
d. by breaking bonds / changing enzyme shape/structure / active site shape/structure;
substrate:
e. as substrate concentration increases, activity increases;
f. as substrate concentration increases, the collisions between substrate and enzyme increase;
g. up to a maximal level of action / reaching a plateau;
h. all active sites are saturated/occupied;
temperature:
i. enzymes have an optimal temperature (where they work most effectively);
j. activity increases as it gets closer to optimal temperature;
k. high temperatures stop enzyme activity due to irreversible changes in structure / denaturation;
l. by breaking bonds / changing enzyme shape/structure / active site shape/structure;
Award any of the above points in an annotated graph.
 a. transcription is the copying of a strand of DNA into RNA/RNA formation;
b. RNA polymerase binds to promoter region of DNA;
c. anti-sense strand as template / only one strand copied;
d. RNA polymerase unwinds DNA/separates the strands;
e. RNA nucleotides/nucleoside triphosphates pair with complementary bases on DNA;
13HL Outline transcription in prokaryotes. (6)
f. Adenine to Thymine, Cytosine to Guanine, and Uracil to Adenine; (do not accept letters alone)
g. added at 3' end / strand grows 5' to 3' ;
h. RNA nucleotides joined with covalent/sugar-phosphate bonds;
i. RNA polymerase separates from DNA when reaches terminator/termination sequence;
j. no introns/post-transcriptional modification/RNA splicing (as occurs in eukaryotes);
hydrogen bonding:
a. high specific heat capacity requiring large amounts of energy to break the H-bonds/to raise the
temperature;
b. boiling point is high/100°C as H-bonds must be broken to change from liquid to gas;
c. cooling effect of evaporation due to H-bonds taking energy from liquid water to break / high latent
heat of evaporation;
Describe four properties of water that are due to hydrogen bonding
13HL d. water molecules on surface resistant to forces because of surface tension;
and polarity. (4)
e. water is most dense at 4°C due to more regular hydrogen bonding;

polarity:
f. water molecules stick together through cohesion; (full idea required)
g. water molecules stick to other polar molecules through adhesion; (full idea required)
h. good solvent of polar organic molecules
condensation is joining together molecules with the release of water;
(in general) two monosaccharides join to form a disaccharide / many mono-
saccharides/disaccharides form polysaccharides;
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in metabolic example; (eg. two glucose from maltose)
13SL
reactions involving carbohydrates. (4) hydrolysis is the breaking down of molecules with the addition of water;
(in general) disaccharides break into monosaccharides / polysaccharides break into
disaccharides/monosaccharides;
example; (eg. maltose forms two glucose)
enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions;
lock and key model;
substrate fits into active site;
enzyme-substrate specificity;
enzymes work best at optimal pH/different enzymes have different optimal pHs;
Metabolic reactions are catalysed by enzymes. Explain how
increase/decrease from optimum pH decreases activity;
12SL enzymes catalyse reactions and how a change in pH could affect
change in pH changes structure/charge of active site;
this. (8)
changing three-dimensional structure of enzyme/protein;
not allowing substrate to fit in active site;
enzymes can be denatured if change is extreme;
denaturing is loss of its biological properties;
sketch graph showing pH versus enzyme activity;
sulfur – part of amino acids / proteins;
calcium – strengthening/formation of bones / muscle contraction / synaptic transmission;
phosphorus – formation of nucleic acids / ATP / GTP / NADP / phospholipids;
State the role of four named minerals needed by living organisms.
12HL iron – formation of hemoglobin / transport of oxygen;
(4)
sodium – nerve impulse / sodium-potassium pump / osmoregulation;
potassium – nerve transmission / sodium-potassium pump / osmoregulation;
magnesium – part of chlorophyll molecule;
translation is protein/polypeptide synthesis;
formed by (ribosomal) RNA and proteins; (both needed)
about 20nm/30nm / 80S in eukaryotes;
organized into a tertiary structure/globular shape;
Outline how the structure of the ribosome is related to its function a small subunit and a large one;
12HL
in translation. (6) (three) binding sites for tRNA on/in large subunit;
A, P and E sites;
binding site for mRNA on surface/in small subunit;
two tRNA can bind at the same time;
ribosomal RNA catalyses formation of peptide bond;
(mono-, di- and polysaccharides) consist of one, two and many units;
Outline, with examples, the types of carbohydrate found in living example of monosaccharide (e.g. glucose/ribose/galactose/fructose);
12HL
organisms. (4) example of disaccharide (e.g. maltose/lactose/sucrose);
example of polysaccharide (e.g. starch/glycogen/cellulose)

12HL Describe the importance of hydrolysis in digestion. (6)
12HL Explain the role of limiting factors in photosynthesis. (8)
12HL List the general functions of non-membrane proteins. (4)
Outline how three properties of water enhance its use by living
12HL
organisms. (6)
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship
11SL
between fatty acids, glycerol and triglycerides. (6)
Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its
11SL uses in living organisms as a coolant, a medium for metabolic
reactions and a transport medium. (8)
digestion is the breakdown of large molecules into small molecules;
to allow diffusion / to make food soluble;
so foods can be absorbed into the bloodstream/body;
so foods can move from bloodstream into cells;
small molecules can be joined to form the organism’s (unique) macromolecules;
hydrolysis is aided by enzymes;
hydrolysis requires water;
polysaccharides (hydrolysed) to disaccharides/monosaccharides/specific example;
proteins/polypeptides (hydrolysed) to amino acids;
fats/lipids/triglycerides (hydrolysed) to fatty acids and glycerol;
factor nearest its minimum/furthest from its optimum is limiting;
increasing a limiting factor with other factors constant increases the rate;
increasing a non-limiting factor with other factors constant has no effect on rate;
light intensity is limiting in dim/low intensity light / at night;
photosynthesis (directly) proportional to intensity up to plateau / graph to show this;
light intensity affects the light-dependent reactions/production of ATP/NADPH;
temperature limiting at low and high temperatures;
optimum temperature with lower rates above and below plateau / graph to show this;
low temperatures limit the rate of light-independent reactions/Calvin cycle;
RuBP carboxylase/rubisco does not fix carbon dioxide at high temperatures;
carbon dioxide concentration is limiting in bright light and warm temperatures;
photosynthesis is (directly) proportional to CO2 concentration up to plateau / graph to show this;
low CO2 concentration limits carbon fixation/reaction between CO2 and RuBP;
contraction / movement;
acts as a catalyst/enzymes / specific example of an enzyme function;
structure / support / specific example of a structural/support role;
transport;
defence / immunity;
as hormones / communication;
DNA packing / histones;
other function;
cohesive properties help in transpiration pull/movement of water in plants;
high surface tension allows some animals to stride across its surface;
high latent heat of evaporation/large amounts of energy required for evaporation makes it a good
coolant;
high specific heat capacity causes it to maintain environmental temperatures;
low density as ice forms insulation of lakes allowing life below;
transparency for photosynthesis;
transparency for vision in animals;
solvent properties make it the medium for metabolic reactions;
solvent properties allow transport of (soluble) molecules/food;
hydrolysis: [3 max]
when larger molecules are broken to smaller molecules/subunits;
with the addition of water;
fatty acids produced by the hydrolysis of fats/triglycerides;
breaking of ester bonds;
with release of glycerol;
condensation: [3 max]
when molecules/subunits are joined to form a larger molecule;
water formed/removed;
fatty acids linked to glycerol;
up to three fatty acids can be linked to each glycerol;
through formation of ester bonds;
water is a polar molecule;
oxygen has a partial negative charge / hydrogen has a partial positive charge;
hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water molecules;
water remains liquid over wide range of temperatures/0 to 100 °C ;
moderates temperature fluctuation / stable environment;
accurate reference to specific heat;
sweating/evaporation cools organisms;
accurate reference to high heat of vaporization;
polarity makes water a good/universal solvent for polar/ionic substances;
(all) metabolic reactions of cells take place in (aqueous) solutions;
blood/xylem/phloem transport solutes in water;
cohesive properties allow capillary action/transpiration stream/water column in xylem;
 collisions between enzyme/active site and substrate;
enzyme activity increases as temperature rises;
more frequent collisions at higher temperatures;
each enzyme has an optimum temperature / enzymes have optimal temperatures;
high temperatures (above optimum) denature enzymes;
each enzyme has an optimum pH / enzymes have optimal pHs;
Respiration and other processes in cells involve enzymes. Explain
11SL increase or decrease from optimum pH decreases rate of reaction/activity;
the factors that can affect enzymes. (8)
extreme pH alters/denatures the tertiary/3D protein/enzyme structure;
increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction;
higher substrate concentration increases chance of collision;
until plateau;
when all active sites are busy;
Accept clearly annotated graph.
milk contains lactose / lactose is milk sugar;
lactose is broken down to glucose and galactose;
by (the enzyme) lactase;
Many people cannot digest lactose and benefit from a diet which is lacking in people with lactose intolerance;
11HL containing no lactose. Outline the production of lactose-free milk. lactose-free milk is sweeter than milk containing lactose;
(6) lactase produced by small intestine / produced by yeast sometimes found in milk;
can be added directly to milk;
immobilized in beads / biotechnological techniques;
ultrafiltration of milk to remove lactose;
enzymes most active at one temperature/optimum temperature;
any deviation from that temperature lowers the enzyme activity;
denaturing/change in active site/no activity at higher temperatures / inactivated at (very) low
Outline the effect of temperature and substrate concentration on temperatures;
11HL
the activity of enzymes. (4) increasing the substrate concentration increases the enzyme activity/more enzyme-substrate
complex formed/more collisions between enzyme and substrate;
eventually no increase in enzyme activity with increased substrate concentration / plateau when
enzymes are working to the maximum/when all active sites occupied/saturated;
two genetically identical nuclei/daughter cells formed during mitosis (so hereditary information in
DNA can be passed on);
two copies of each chromosome/DNA molecule/chromatid needed;
Explain why DNA must be replicated before mitosis and the role of
10SL helicase unwinds the DNA/double helix;
helicase in DNA replication. (4)
to allow the strands to be separated;
helicase separates the two (complementary) strands of DNA;
by breaking hydrogen bonds between bases;
DNA replication is semi-conservative;
DNA is split into two single/template strands;
nucleotides are assembled on/attached to each single/template strand;
Explain how the base sequence of DNA is conserved during
10SL by complementary base pairing;
replication. (5)
adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine / A with T and C with G;
strand newly formed on each template strand is identical to other template strand;
DNA polymerase used;
monosaccharides are single sugars and disaccharides are two sugars and polysaccharides are
multiple sugars;
hydrolysis is the addition of water to split a molecule into smaller fragments;
Outline the role of hydrolysis in the relationships between
10SL –OH and –H are added to the fragments;
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. (4)
disaccharides are split/digested into two single sugars;
polysaccharides are broken/digested into smaller fragments (e.g. diasaccharides);
process depends on enzyme control (in organisms)
a particular yeast (growing in natural milk) contains lactase;
biotechnology companies can grow/culture the yeast;
lactase (an enzyme) is extracted from the yeast;
natural milk contains lactose/milk sugar;
when added directly to milk, lactase converts lactose into simpler forms;
same effect when milk is passed past immobilized (on surface or beads) lactase;
simpler forms of sugar (glucose and galactose) are easily absorbed (in the small intestine);
Describe the use of biotechnology in the production of lactose-free a commercial market exists for lactose-free milk / lactose-free milk is example of biotechnology’s
10SL
milk. (6) economic impact;
some people are lactose intolerant/cannot digest lactose in milk/have lost lactase activity in intestinal
cells;
consuming lactose-free milk allows lactose intolerant people to be nourished by milk without
discomfort (abdominal cramps and diarrhoea);
many Asians are lactose intolerant whereas less common among other groups (northern Europeans
and some Africans);
biotechnology produced in one part of world is more useful in another;

10SL Explain the importance of enzymes to human digestion. (8)
Most of the DNA of a human cell is contained in the nucleus.
10HL Distinguish between unique and highly repetitive sequences in
nuclear DNA. (5)
Draw a labelled diagram to show four DNA nucleotides, each with
10HL
a different base, linked together in two strands. (5)
10HL Outline the structure of a ribosome. (4)
Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins with reference to globular proteins used for catalysis/transport/other specific role of globular protein;
10HL
one example of each protein type. (6)
food must be in a small enough form to leave the gut and enter the bloodstream;
physical breakdown is not enough / chemical breakdown is necessary;
enzymes are required for the chemical breakdown of food;
enzymes increase the rate of digestion;
enzymes are biological catalysts;
enzymes allow digestion to occur at body temperature;
enzymatic digestion is a sequential process e.g. from protein to peptide to amino acid;
specific location for each reaction with specific conditions/environments e.g. stomach high acidity;
most enzymes work extracellularly / some enzymes work intracellularly;
variations in pH throughout digestive tract promote the activity of different digestive enzymes /
different enzymes have different optimal pHs;
amylases digest carbohydrate to monosaccharides;
proteases digest proteins to amino acids;
lipases digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol;
satellite DNA is repetitive;
repetitive sequences are used for profiling;
prokaryotes do not (usually) contain repetitive sequences
four nucleotides shown in diagram with one nucleotide clearly labelled;
base, phosphate and deoxyribose (shown as pentagon) connected between the correct carbons and
labelled at least once;
backbone labelled as covalent bond between nucleotides correctly shown as 3' to 5' bond;
two base pairs linked by hydrogen bonds drawn as dotted lines and labelled;
two H bonds between A and T and three H bonds between C and G;
adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine; do not accept initials of bases
small subunit and large subunit;
mRNA binding site on small subunit;
three tRNA binding sites / A, P and E tRNA binding sites;
protein and RNA composition (in both subunits);
fibrous proteins are strands/sheets whereas globular proteins are rounded;
fibrous proteins (usually) insoluble whereas globular proteins (usually) soluble;
globular more sensitive to changes in pH/temperature/salt than fibrous;
fibrous proteins have structural roles / other specific role of fibrous protein;
another role of globular protein;
named fibrous proteins e.g. keratin/fibrin/collagen/actin/myosin/silk protein;
named globular protein e.g. insulin/immunoglobulin/hemoglobin/named enzyme;
Do not accept statements about fibrous proteins having only secondary structure and globular
proteins having only tertiary structure.