Physical mechanisms and

Equations for Heat Transfer rates

 Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy
• What is Heat Transfer?
Heat Transfer is the transit of thermal energy whenever a temperature difference
exists in a medium or between two media.

• What is Thermal Energy?

Thermal energy is associated to translation, rotation and vibration,
and to the electronic states of the atoms and molecules that constituite matter.
Thermal energy represents the cumulative effect of the microscopic (molecular)
activities and is related with the matter temperature.
 DO NOT mix or confuse the physical meanings of Thermal Energy,
Temperature and Heat Transfer

Quantity Physical meaning Symbol Units

Thermal Energy associated to the microscopic

Energy behaviour of matter U or u J or J/kg
Temperature Indirect mode to assess the thermal
energy accumulated in the matter T º C or K

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred in

a time interval
t > 0
Q J
Heat transfer rate Thermal energy transferred per unit time
q W

Heat flux Thermal energy transferred per unit time

and unit area
q' ' W / m2
 Heat transfer modes (mechanisms)

Conduction (diffusion): Heat transfer in a solid or static fluid (gas or liquid) due to the random movement of its atoms,
molecules or electrons.
 Heat transfer modes (mechanisms)

Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined effect of the random (microscopic) movement and
macroscopic (advection) movement of a fluid over a solid surface.

Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to the changes of electronic configurations of
its atoms or molecules, and that is transported by electromagnetic waves or photons.

• Conduction and convection require the presence of a physical medium

(matter) and the existence of temperature differences in that medium.

• Although radiation has origin in the matter, its transport does not require the presence of a
physical medium (matter). In fact, radiative transport is more efficient in the vacuum.
 Heat transfer rates
Conduction
General form (vector) of the Fourier’s Law:

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient (vector)

W/m 2 W/m ⋅ K º C/m or K/m
Application to the steady-state, one-dimensional conduction through a flat
plate (infinite) with constant thermal conductivity.

Heat flux(W/m2):

dT T −T
qx′′ = −k = −k 2 1
dx L

T1 − T2
qx′′ = k
L

Heat transfer rate (W): qx = qx′′ ⋅ A

 Heat transfer rates
Convection
Relation between convection and flow over a solid surface with the hydrodynamic and
thermal boundary layers development .

Newton’s cooling law : q ′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )

h [W/m2.ºC] ou [W/m2.K]: Coeficiente

Convection heat transfer
de transferência coefficient
de calor por convecção
 Heat transfer rates
DIFFERENT PHENOMENA
• Advection, diffusion, convection

• Forced and natural convection

• Sensible and latent heat

• Boiling and condensation

 Heat transfer rates
Radiation
Radiation heat transfer in a gas/solid interface comprises the emission of radiation from the
surface and can also comprise the absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation G), as well as convection (whenever Ts ≠ T∞).

Energy flux leaving due to emission :

E = ε Eb = εσ Ts4
E [W/m2]: Surface emissive power
ε (0 ≤ ε ≤1): Surface emissivity
Eb [W/m2]: Blackbody emissive power (perfect emitter)
σ = 5,67××10-8 [W m-2 K-4] (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)

Absorbed energy due to irradiation: Gabs = α G

Gabs [W/m2]: Radiação
Absorbed incidente absorvida
irradiation
α (0 ≤ α ≤ 1): Surface absorptivity
Absorsividade da superfície
G [W/m2]: Irradiação
Irradiation
 Heat transfer rates
Irradiation: Special case of a small surface at TS exposed to a
much larger, isothermal (temperature Tsur )

4
G = Gsur = σ T sur

If α = ε, the net radiative flux from the surface due to heat exchanges
with the surroundings is:
 Heat transfer rates

Alternatively,

''
q rad = hr (TS − Tsur )
[
hr W / m 2 .K ] Radiation heat transfer coefficient

hr = ε σ (TS + Tsur )(TS2 + Tsur

2
)

For combined radiation and convection:

q ′′ = qconv ′′ = h (Ts − T∞ ) + hr (Ts − Tsur )

′′ + qrad (1.10)
Energy Conservation
 ENERGY CONSERVATION
(First Law Lei of Thermodynamics)
• A very important tool for the analysis of the heat transfer
phenomenon, generally being a basis to determine the
temperature of the system under study.

•Alternative formulations
Instantaneous
Time basis: or
In a time interval

Control volume
System type: Control surface
 APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME
• For an instant (time):

Note the system representation by a control

surface (interrupted line) defining the boundaries.

Surface phenomena

Rate of transference of thermal and/or mechanical energy across the control surface, due
to heat transfer, fluid flow or work transfer.

Volumetric phenomena

Rate of thermal energy generation due to the conversion from other energy form (e.g.
electric, nuclear, chemical); such conversion occurs inside the system

Rate of variation of the system stored energy

 APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME
Energy conservation (application of 1st law of Thermodynamics) for an instant (time):

Units of each term [J/s] or [W].

For a finite time interval:

Ein + E g − Eout = ∆Est (1.11b ) Units of each term [J].

 ENERGY BALANCE TO A SURFACE
There is a particular case with no mass or volume contained within the control surface

Energy conservation (instantaneous): E& in − E& out = 0

• It is applied to both steady and unsteady states

• With no mass and no volume, it does not make any sense to talk about stored energy or energy
generation in the energy balance, even if these phenomena actually occur within the medium delimited by
the surface.
Consider the wall surface with heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation).

′′ − qconv
qcond ′′ − qrad
′′ = 0
T1 − T2
k
L
( )
− h (T2 − T∞ ) − ε 2σ T24 − Tsur
4
=0