ME 305: Heat Transfer

July 2023 UG Semester

Dr. Md. Nasim Hasan

Department of Mechanical Engineering
BUET, Dhaka-1000
 Heat Transfer
▪ Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system/location to
another as a result of temperature difference
▪ The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers
is heat transfer
 Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics
▪ Thermodynamic analysis determine the amount of heat transfer for any system
undergoing any process from one equilibrium state to another
▪ Thermodynamics gives no indication about how long the process will take!

Let us consider the case of hot coffee

getting cold from 90 C to 60 C:
(a) in a thermo bottle
(b) In bare condition

From thermodynamics:
Amount: Simple: Q= mcpT
Time: Don’t know!:
Need Knowledge of Heat Transfer

▪ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium
state to another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack
thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a non-equilibrium phenomenon.
 Thermodynamics: Framework for Heat Transfer
▪ Study of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of thermodynamics alone.
▪ However, the laws of thermodynamics constitute the framework for the science of
heat transfer.
▪ First law: Rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to the rate of
increase of the energy of that system.
 Thermodynamics: Framework for Heat Transfer
▪ Second law: Heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing
temperature

▪ Thermodynamics Tells us:

▪ How much heat is transferred (Q)
▪ How much work is transferred (W)
▪ Final State of the system

▪ Heat Transfer Tells us:

▪ How (in which mode) Q transferred
▪ At what rate Q is transferred
▪ Temperature Distribution inside the system
 Heat Transfer Applications

▪ Human Comfort
▪ Energy production and conversion
▪ Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
▪ Process Control (Evaporation, Distillation, Drying)
▪ Household Appliances (Oven, Toaster, Stove)
▪ Automobile/Power Plants/ Energy Conversion
 Engineering Heat Transfer Analysis
Engineering Heat Transfer problems belong to two classes:

▪ Rating Problem: determination of the heat transfer rate for an

specific/existing system at a specified temperature difference

▪ Sizing Problem: determination of the size of a system in order to transfer

heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference

▪ A heat transfer process or equipment can be studied either:

▪ Experimentally (testing and taking measurements)
▪ Expensive and Time Consuming
▪ Accuracy depends on Measurement/Experimental Error
▪ Analytically (by analysis or calculations)
▪ Fast and inexpensive
▪ Accuracy depends on assumption and idealization

▪ Best practice: Modeling or Analytical solution to reducing the choices to

just a few and then verifying the findings through experiment
 Heat and Other forms of Energy
▪ The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy. The
sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system
• U: Total internal energy (J)
• u: Specific internal energy (J/kg)

▪ Internal energy: Sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.
• The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic
energy of the molecules is called sensible energy or sensible heat
(For Ideal Gas: Avg. Molecular Kinetic Energy= 1.5kBT, kB: Boltzman
Constant, T: Absolute Temperature.
• The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called latent
energy or latent heat.
• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is
called chemical (or bond) energy
• The internal energy associated with the bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself is called nuclear energy.
 Internal Energy, Flow Energy & Enthalpy

▪ Systems involving fluid flow, invoke the term “Flow energy or Flow
Work” (P, P: Pressure, : Specific Volume) in connection with the
internal energy content (u)
▪ A combination of properties called enthalpy, (h) is used in this case to
represent microscopic energy content as:

h = u + Pv
▪ System involving “No Flow” (stationary), microscopic energy content is
represented by the internal energy (u)
 Specific Heats and Thermodynamic Relations
▪ Specific Heat: Energy required to raise the temperature of
a unit mass of a substance by one degree (J/kg.K)

▪ In thermodynamics, two kinds of specific heats:

▪ specific heat at constant volume, cv
▪ specific heat at constant pressure, cp

▪ The specific heat at constant volume cv can be viewed as the energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume
is held constant.
▪ The energy required to do the same as the pressure is held constant is the
specific heat at constant pressure cp.
▪ cp is greater than cv because at constant pressure the system is allowed to
expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the
system.
dh du
cp = ; cv = ;
dT dT
 Specific Heats and Thermodynamic Relations
h = u + Pv
Pr ove that : c p = cv + R
dh = du + Pdv
(Cons tan t Pr essure Pr ocess)
For Ideal Gas :
dh
cp = ; dh = c p dT
dT
du
cv = ; du = cv dT
dT
Pv = RT ; Pdv = RdT
(Cons tan t Pr essure Pr ocess)
c p dT = cv dT + RdT
c p = cv + R
Cp > Cv as Cp allows some flow work
 Factors affecting Specific Heats
▪ Specific heats (cp, cv) depend on
Temperature and Pressure

▪ For an ideal gas, however, they depend on

Temperature only:
For Ideal Gas :
dh du
cp = ; cv =
dT dT
dh = c p dT ; du = cv dT ( Differential Change)
h = c p, avg T ; u = cv, avg T ( FiniteChange)
H = mc p, avg T ; U = mcv, avg T
h, u : SpecificPr operty; H ,U :Total Pr operty
c p, avg = Averagec p over T range
cv, avg = Averagecv over T range
 Factors affecting Specific Heats

▪ For solid and liquid, specific heats does not change with pressure as they are
incompressible (dV = 0). So, specific heat depends on temperature only:

For Solid and Liquid :

c p  cv = cavg
u = cavg T
U = mcavg T
 Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux

Q = HeatTransfer Rate( J / s)
t = Timeint erval (s)
Q = Amountof HeatTransfer( J )
t

Q = Q dt = Q t
0
 Q (J ) Q Q
Q= = ( J / s) = (W )
t (s) t t
q = Heat Flux = HeatTransfer Rate / Area
Q Q
q = = (W / m2 )
A At
First Law of Thermodynamics

d
Steady State System: =0
dt

System with internal generation:

 Energy Balance for Closed System

▪ A closed system consists of a fixed mass.

▪ The total energy E for most systems encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy, U
▪ Essentially a stationary system that don’t involve any changes in their velocity
or elevation during a process

StationaryClosed System :
Ein − Eout = U = mcv T
StationaryClosed System, NoWork:
Q = U = mcv T
 Energy Balance for Steady Flow System (Control Volume)
▪ Many devices involve mass flow in and out of a system, and are modeled as
control volumes
▪ Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions
• Steady: no change with time at a specified location
• Unsteady: change with time at a specified location
▪ Uniform implies no change with position throughout a surface or region at a
specified time
▪ Non-uniform implies change with position throughout a surface or region at a
specified time
▪ Steady Flow Process: Total energy content in C.V. is Constant; that is Rate of
energy in to C.V. is equal to Rate of Energy out from C.V.
Energy Balance for Steady Flow System (Control Volume)
For Steady FlowSystem
ECV = Cons tan t;
ECV = 0; Ein = Eout ;
Ein = Energyenteringthe C.V .
Eout = Energyleaving the C.V .
dE dE
In rate form : in = out ; Ein = Eout
dt dt
Ein = Rateof inco min g Energyto C.V .
Eout = Rateof outgoing Energy from C.V .

VolumetricFlow Rate() = AveragedVelocity(v)  Flow Area ( Ac )

Mass Flow Rate(m ) = Density  VolumetricFlow Rate = vAc
Q = m h = m c T
p
 Surface Energy Balance for H.T. Analysis
▪ A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy storage!
▪ A surface is a fictitious system boundary whose energy balance remains constant
during a process (just like a steady-state or steady-flow system)
▪ This relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions since the surface
energy balance does not involve heat generation/storage since a surface does not
have a volume.

SurfaceEnergy Balance:
E = E ;
in out
Q1 = Q 2 + Q3;
Q − Q − Q = 0;
1 2 3
 Problem#01

4 
Total HeatTransfer :Q = mcavg T =  r 3  cavg T
3 
r = 5 cm = 5  10−2 m;  = 8950kg / m3; cavg = 395 J / kg.o C
T = (150 − 100) o C = 50o C
Q = 92.55  103 J
Q 92.55  103
Q avg = = = 51.41W
t 30  60 s
Q avg Q avg 51.41w
qavg = = = = 1636W / m 2
Area (4r 2 ) (4  0.052 )
Problem#02

Qw = m c p,avg T
QH = 7  103 W
Qw = QH
m c p,avg T = 7  103 W
T = (70 − 15)o C = 55 oC
c p,avg = c p @Tavg
= c p @ 42.5o C
m = ??
 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat from a high temperature region
to low temperature region may be
transferred by any of three basic
modes:
a. Conduction
b. convection
c. radiation

Water is analogous of heat during fire fighting while

people may represent the medium
 Conduction Heat Transfer
In Conduction, heat transfer takes place due to temperature difference in a solid body or
between solid bodies in thermal contact, without mixing of mass. The rate of heat transfer
through conduction is governed by the Fourier’s law of heat conduction such as:
Q = -kA(dT/dx);

Q/A = q = -k (dT/dx); q: heat flux-Heat Transfer Rate per unit area

Where, ‘Q’ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), ‘k’ is the thermal conductivity of body
material (W/m.K), ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient of the section (K/m)and q is the heat flux (Q/A).

Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)

• Companion of Napoleon
• Great Applied Mathematician
 Problem#03

Brick wall : 5 m  6 m; k = 0.69W / m.k

T Q = ? q = ??
Q = − kA
x T (5 − 20)
if x → 0, then Q = − kA = −0.69  (5  6)  W = 1035W
x 0.30
dT Q 1035
Q = − kA q= = W / m2 = 34.5 W / m2
dx A (5  6)
 Convection Heat Transfer
In convection, heat is transferred to a moving fluid at the surface over which it flows by
combined molecular diffusion and bulk flow. Convection involves conduction and fluid flow.
The rate of convective heat transfer is governed by the Newton’s law of cooling:
Q = hA(Ts-T∞)
Where ‘Ts‘ is the surface temperature ‘T∞’ is the outside temperature ‘h’ is the coefficient of
convection heat transfer, ‘A’ is the heat transfer surface area.

Convection heat transfer process may be:

▪ Natural convection or forced convection on
the basis of external fluid flow assistance
▪ Single phase convection or phase change
convection (Boiling/Condensation) depending
on the phase change of the fluid involved
 Radiation Heat Transfer
In Radiation, heat is transferred in the form of electromagnetic wave from one body to
another body. No medium for radiation to occur.
The rate of heat radiation that can be emitted by a surface at a thermodynamic temperature
is based on “Stefan-Boltzmann law”:

Q = AT4
Where “” is the surface emissivity, “T” is the absolute surface temperature
“A” is the surface area.  = 5.67108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
 Thermal Conductivity
Recall the Fourier’s law of heat conduction: Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where, ‘Q’ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), ‘K’ is the thermal conductivity of body
material (W/m.K), ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient of the section (K/m).
k = -Q/[A(dT/dx)]
dT = T1-T2; dx = d; dT/dx = -(T2-T1)/d
If A = 1 unit (m2); dT/dx = 1 unit (K/m),
then; k = Q

Thermal conductivity of a material can be

defined as the rate of heat transfer
through per unit area of the material
under per unit temperature difference
across a unit length.

A good thermal conductor has high thermal conductivity while material with low thermal
conductivity is called insulator.
Unit of thermal conductivity is W/m.K.
Heat Transfer per unite Area (Q/A) is called Heat Flux (q) and has a unit of W/m2
k = -Q/[A (dT/dx)]= -q/(dT/dx)
Thermal Conductivity and Temperature Drop

Higher thermal conductivity of the medium

means lower temperature drop across the
medium. Usually:

Kgas< kliq< ksolid

 Thermal Conductivity of various Materials

▪ Thermal conductivity in decreasing

order:

Metal>> Non Metal Solid>> Liquid>> Gas

▪ Thermal conductivity of gases is

proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature T, and inversely
proportional to the square root of the
molar mass.

▪ Like gases, the conductivity of liquids

decreases with increasing molar mass.

▪ Liquid metals such as mercury and sodium have high thermal conductivities and are very
suitable for use in applications where a high heat transfer rate to a liquid is desired, as in
nuclear power plants.
 What Governs conduction in solids, liquids and gases?
In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects:

i) the lattice vibrational waves

ii) the free flow of electrons in the solid.

The relatively high thermal conductivities of pure metals are primarily due to the abundant
free electrons.

The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the molecules are
arranged. For example, diamond, which is a highly ordered crystalline solid, has the highest
known thermal conductivity at room temperature.
 What Governs conduction in solids, liquids and gases?
In liquids and gases, heat conduction occurs mainly through two mechanisms:
i) molecular collision among atoms
ii) molecular diffusion
As the number of molecular collisions increases with temperature, the exchange of energy
among molecules increases. This helps in the transport of heat energy through the medium.

Molecular diffusion is the random movement of molecules in a medium. As the random

movement of molecules increases, it obstructs the transport of heat energy in a particular
direction.

Increase in temperature results in higher molecular

collision while as well as higher molecular diffusion.

Molecular collision is predominant for gas while

molecular diffusion is predominant for liquid.

Therefore, thermal conductivity for gas increases with

temperature while for liquid it decreases with
temperature.

Similar difference is true for viscosity variation with

temperature for liquid and gas.
Temperature Dependency of Thermal Conductivity

▪ Thermal conductivity of gases

gradually increases with temperature

▪ Unlike gases, the conductivity of

liquids decreases with increasing
temperature except water that firstly
increases with temperature and then
decreases.

▪ In solids, the conductivity of solids

decreases with increasing
temperature. Some solids show
tremendous raise in conductivity at
very low temperature, for example:
Cu
Thermal Conductivity of various Materials

▪ Applications of thermal superconductor and super insulators??

 Thermal Diffusivity ()
When a medium transmits heat it also gets warm at the same time. Heat transmission/conduction is
related to thermal conductivity (k) while getting warm of the medium is related to heat capacity/storage
(cp)

Thermal diffusivity () which represents how fast heat diffuses through a material is defined as:

Here Thermal conductivity “k” represents how well a material conducts heat, and the heat capacity, “Cp”
represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume.

▪ The thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat conducted through the
material to the heat stored per unit volume. In a sense, thermal diffusivity is the measure of thermal
inertia.

▪ A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have a large
thermal diffusivity. The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the
medium.

▪ A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat will be conducted further
 Thermal Diffusivity ()

▪ Let us consider sudden release of heat from a point source.

▪ Heat will propagate in all directions from a point just after been released. It is similar to
growing up of an sphere. With time heat will propagate forming an imaginary sphere getting
bigger and bigger around the point source.

▪ Propagation rate is related to the rate of increase of the sphere surface area related to any
particular phenomena (thermal, momentum, mass etc.) and hence any propagation rate in
three dimensional space has the unit of m2/s. Sometimes called propagation velocity.

▪ Kinetic viscosity is a property of a fluid that describes how momentum variation propagates
in that fluid and often called as momentum diffusivity (m2/s)
 Role of Thermal Diffusivity ()
▪ In physical terms, thermal diffusivity gives a measure of how quickly the temperature will
change when it is heated or cooled.
▪ Materials with a high thermal diffusivity will heat or cool quickly; conversely, substances
with a low thermal diffusivity will heat or cool slowly.
▪ Thus, thermal diffusivity is an important property when considering unsteady-state heat
transfer situations.

t
To 0.5To

For cooling in stagnant air at room condition, to 50% of the initial temperature time (t)

Medium Silver Copper Steel Glass

 (m2/s) 17010-6 10310-6 12.910-6 0.5910-6
t 9.5 min 16.5 min 2.2 hr 2.0 day
 ME 305: Heat Transfer

General Heat Conduction Equation and associated

Boundary Condition

Dr. Mohammad Nasim Hasan

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BUET, Dhaka-1000
 Why we need different co-ordinate system!

Chocolate Bar Cheese Water melon

Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical

 Cartesian Co-ordinate System: Overview

▪ How we denote a point P (x, y, z)?

Intersection of three planes:
▪ y-z plane (x= constant )
▪ z-x plane (y= constant )
▪ x-y plane (z= constant )
▪ Differential volume from point P (x, y, z)

▪ Move point P (x, y, z) along x axis

(constant y and z) through dx to get a line
of length dx.
▪ Move line dx (parallel to x axis) along y
axis (constant z) through dy to get an area
of dxdy in x-y plane (constant z)
▪ Move area dxdy along z axis through dz
to get an volume of dxdydz in x-y-z
coordinate system
Cartesian Co-ordinate System: Overview

Point-Line-Area-Volume

Area ⊥ x direction, Ax : dydz

Area ⊥ y direction, Ay : dzdx
Area ⊥ z direction, Az : dxdy
Volumeof C.V . : dV = dxdydz
 General Heat Conduction Analysis in Cartesian Co-ordinate System
Objective
▪ To determine the temperature distribution, T (x, y, z, t)
Assumptions:
▪ Constant thermo-physical properties (specific heat, density) of the Medium
▪ Uniform internal volumetric heat generation rate (W/m3)

Volumeof ControlVolume : dV = dxdydz

Area ⊥ x direction, Ax : dydz
Area ⊥ y direction, Ay : dzdx
Area ⊥ z direction, Az : dxdy
 Energy Balance in C.V.

Ein − Eout + Eg = Est (J )

dEin dEout dEg dEst  J 
− + =  
dt dt dt dt  s 
Ein − Eout + E g = E st (W )
First Lawof Ther mod ynamics
in Rate Form

Ein : Energyinf low to C.V ( J ) E in : Rate of Energyinf low to C.V (W )

Eout : Energy outflow from C.V ( J ) E : Rate of Energy outflow from C.V (W )
out
E g : Energy generationin C.V ( J ) E g : Rate of Energy generationin C .V (W )
Est : Energy storage in C.V ( J ) E st : Rate of Energy storagein C.V (W )
Ein :through planes x, y, and z
E :through planes x + dx, y + dy, z + dz
out

Ein = qx + q y + qz ;
E out = qx+ dx + q y + dy + qz + dz
Taylor series :
q x
qx+ dx = qx + dx;
x
qy
qy + dy = qy + dy;
y
qz
qz + dz = qz + dz
z
 Fourier' s Law :
T
qx = −k x Ax ;
x
k x = ThermalConductivity along x direction
Ax = Area ⊥ x direction
T
: LinearTempGradientalong x direction
x

(
Ein − Eout = qx + q y + qz )
(
− qx+ dx + q y + dy + qz + dz )
qx  qy q
=− dx − dy − z dz
x y z
T T T
qx = −k x Ax ; qy = −k y Ay ; qz = −k z Az
x y z
 
k x , k y and k z :Thermalconductivity in x, y and z direction
 q qy q
Ein − E out = − x dx − dy − z dz
x y z
  T    T    T 
=−  − k x Ax dx −  − k y Ay dy −  − k z Az dz
x  x  y  y  z  z 
  T    T    T 
=  k x dydz dx +  k y dzdx dy +  k z dxdy dz
x  x  y  y  z  z 
   T    T    T  
=   kx dx +  k y dy +  k z dz  dxdydz
 x  x  y  y  z  z  
For Cons tan t Pr operty IsotropicMedium:
k x = k y = k z = k = Cons tan t
For Non − isotropicMedium: k x  k y  k z
k = k ( x, y, z )

     T    T    T 
Ein − Eout = k    +   +   dxdydz

 
x  x  y  y  z  z 
  2T  2T  2T 
= k  2 + 2 + 2  dxdydz
 x y z 
   2T  2T  2T 
 
Ein − Eout = k  2 + 2 + 2  dxdydz
 x y z 
(
E g = q  dV = q  dxdydz; q = Volumetricheat generationrate W / m3 )
T T T
E st = dmcp = (dV )c p = dxdydzcp
t t t
dV :Volumeof differential C.V = dxdydz
 = Densityof the medium
c p = Specific Heat of the medium
dm = Mass of differential C.V = dV = dxdydz
Ein − E out + E g = E st
  2T  2T  2T  T
k  2 + 2 + 2  dxdydz + qdxdydz = c p dxdydz
 x y z  t
 2T  2T  2T q c p T 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + = =
x 2
y z k k t  t

k  m2 
= = Thermal Difussivity  
c p  
 s 
General 3D Heat Conduction equation for isotropic, homogeneous, constant
property medium with uniform constant internal heat generation.

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + =
x 2
y z k  t

Steady State( t = 0) :
2T 2T q2T
+ 2 + 2 + = 0 (Poisson Equation)
x 2
y z k
Steady, No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0) :
2T 2T 2T
+ + = 2T = 0 (LaplaceEquation)
x2 y 2 z 2
Transient, No Heat Generation(q = 0) :
2T 2T 2T 1 T
+ + = (DiffusionEquation)
x2 y 2 z 2  t
1D Heat Conduction equation for isotropic, homogeneous, constant property
medium in Cartesian Co-ordinate

In case of 1D heat conduction (  y =   z = 0)

2T q
Steady State with heat generation( t = 0) : + =0
x2 k
2T 1 T
Transient, No Heat Generation(q = 0) : =
x2  t

1D − Steady, No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0) :

2T T
= 0; = C1; T = C1x + C2
x2 x
This is an equationof straightline with cons tan t slope!
One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation (Heat Diffusion Equation) from
First Law of Thermodynamics
 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System: General Overview

▪ How we denote a point P (r, , z)??

▪ Intersection of three planes:

▪ A circular cylindrical surface plane
(constant r)
▪ A half-plane containing the z-axis and
making angle  with reference x-z plane
(constant )
▪ A plane parallel to the xy-plane at
elevation z (constant z)
 Differential C.V. in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
▪ How we can get a differential volume from a point P (r, , z)?

▪ Move point P (r, , z) along r direction (constant  and z) through dr to get a line of
length dr.
▪ Move line dr (in  plane) through d that will have an arch of rd to create an area
of rd dr in r-  plane (constant z)
▪ Move area rd dr along z axis through dz to get an volume of rddrdz in r-  -z
corodinate system

x = r cos ; y = r sin  ; z = z
Area ⊥ r direction, Ar : rddz
Area ⊥  direction, A : drdz
Area ⊥ z direction, Az : rdrd
Volumeof C.V . : dV = rdrddz
Differential Control Volume in cylindrical coordinates T(r, ϕ, z, t)
Volumeof ControlVolume : dV = rdrddz
Area ⊥ r direction, Ar : rddz
Area ⊥  direction, A : drdz
Area ⊥ z direction, Az : rdrd
 Ein − E out + E g = E st
E = q + q + q
in r  z
E out = qr + dr + q + d + qz + dz
q
qr + dr = qr + r dr
r
q
q + d = q + d

q
qz + dz = qz + z dz
z
(
Ein − E out = qr + q + qz )
(
− qr + dr + q + d + qz + dz)
q q q
= − r dr − d − z dz
r  z
Homogeneous, Isotropic, Constant Cons tan t Pr operty IsotropicMedium: k  k (r , , z )
Property Medium T T
qr = −kAr = −k (rddz )
r r
r , r and z : Differential linear lengthin
T T
r , , and z direction q = −kA = −k (drdz)
r r
T T T T T
,
r r z
, : linearTemp.Gradient qz = −kAz = −k (rdrd )
z z
in r , , and z direction
  qr q q
Ein − Eout = − dr − d − z dz
r  z
  T    T    T 
= k  (rddz) dr + k  drdz d + k  rdrd dz
r  r    r  z  z 
   T  1   T    T 
= k r +  
   + r z  z  drddz

 r r  r     
E g = q  dV = qrdrddz;
(
q = Volumetricheat generationrate W / m3 )
T T T
E st = dmc p = dVcp =  (rdrddz)c p
t t t
dV :Volumeof differential controlvolume;
dm = Massof differential controlvolume
 = Densityof the medium
c p = SpecificHeatof the medium
E in − E out + E g = E st
   T  1   T    T  T
k r +   + r   drddz + qrdrddz =  (rdrddz)c p
 r  r  r     z  z  t

Dividingbothsidesby" k" and" rdrddz"

1   T  1  2T  2T q c p T
r + 2 2 + 2 + =
r r  r  r    Z k k t

1   T  1  2T  2T q 1 T
r + 2 2 + 2 + =
r r  r  r    Z k  t
General Heat Conduction Equation for Constant Property, Isotropic
medium in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

1   T  1  2T  2T q c p T 1 T
r + 2 2 + 2 + = =
r r  r  r    Z k k t  t
Steady StateCase with Heat Generation( t = 0):
1   T  1  2T  2T q
r + 2 2 + 2 + =0
r r  r  r    Z k
Steady StateCase with No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0) :
1   T  1  2T  2T
r + + =0
r r  r  r 2  2  2 Z
1D − Steady StateCase with No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0;   =  z = 0) :
1   T    T 
 r  = 0; r =0
r r  r  r  r 
 Spherical Co-ordinate System: General Overview
▪ How we denote a point P (r, , )?

Intersection of three planes:

▪ Sphere of constant radius (constant r)
▪ Plane of constant  in x-y plane from reference x axis
▪ Cone of constant  around axis perpendicular to x-y plane
 Spherical Co-ordinate System: General Overview
▪ How we can get a differential volume from a point P (r, , )?
▪ Move point P (r, , ) along r direction (constant  and ) through dr to get a line of
length dr.
▪ Rotate line dr in  direction through d to get an arch of rd which will create an
area of rdrd in  plane
▪ Rotate area rdrd in  direction through d which will create an arch of rsind to
get an volume of r2sindrdd in r-- coorodinate system
 A differential volume element in spherical coordinates: T(r, ϕ, , t)
Volumeof ControlVolume : dV = dr  rd  r sin d = r 2 sin drdd
Area ⊥ r direction, Ar : rd  r sin d = r 2 sin dd
Area ⊥  direction, A : dr  rd = rdrd
Area ⊥  direction, A : dr  r sin d = r sin drd
 Ein − E out + E g = E st
E = q + q + q ;
in r  
E out = qr + dr + q + d + q + d
q
qr + dr = qr + r dr;
r
q
q + d = q + d ;

q
q + d = q +  d


T T
(
Ein − E out = qr + q + q )
qr = −kAr = −k (r d  r sin  d ) ( )
− qr + dr + q + d + q + d
r r
T qr q q
= −kr 2 sin  d d =− dr − d −  d
r r  
T T
q = −kA = −k (dr  rd )
r sin  r sin 
drd T r , r sin and r : Differential linear lengthin
= −k
sin  
r , , and  direction
T T
q = −kA = −k (dr  r sin  d ) T T T
r r , , : linearTemp.Gradient
T r r sin r
= −k sin  drd in r , , and  direction

  qr q q
Ein − Eout = − dr − d − z dz
r  z
  2 T    drd T    T  
= k   r sin  d d dr +  sin   d +   sin  drd  d 
 
  r  r        
   2 T  drdd  2T   T 
= k sin drdd r + + drdd  sin  
 r  r  sin   2    
   2 T  1  2T   T 
= k sin  r + +  sin   drdd
 r  r  sin   2    
E g = q  dV = qr 2 sin drdd ;

E st = dmc p
T
t
= dVc p
T
t
( )
=  r 2 sin drdd c p
T
t
dV :Volumeof differential control volume;
dm = Mass of differential control volume
 = Density of the medium
c p = Specific Heat of the medium
E in − E out + E g = E st
   2 T  1  2T   T 
k sin  r + +  sin   drdd
 r  r  sin   2    

 2 2
(
+ qr sin drdd =  r sin drdd c p ) T
t
Dividing both sides by " k" and " r 2 sin drdd "
1   2 T  1   2T


+ 1   T  q c p T
 r  +   2  r 2 sin   sin  + =
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2 
      k k t
1   2 T  1   2T  1   T  q 1 T
r + 2  +  sin  + =
r 2 r
 r  r sin    2
2  r 2 sin 
     k  t
General Heat Conduction Equation for Constant Property, Isotropic
medium in Spherical Co-ordinate System

1   2 T  1   2T  1   T  q 1 T
r + 2 2  +  sin  + =
2 r
 r  r sin    2  r 2 sin     k  t
r  
Steady StateCase with No Heat Generation( t = 0) :
1   2 T  1   2T  1   T  q
 r  +  +  sin  + =0
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2   2  r 2 sin     k
 
Steady StateCase with No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0) :
1   2 T  1   2T  1   T 
r + 2 2  +  sin  =0
2 r
 r  r sin    2  r 2 sin    
r  
1D − Steady StateCase with No Heat Generation( t = 0; q = 0;   =   = 0) :
1   2 T    2 T 
2 r
r  = 0; r =0
r  r  r  r 
 Different Co-ordinate Systems

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
+ + + =
x 2 y 2 x 2 k  t

1   T  1  2T  2T q 1 T
r + + + =
r r  r  r 2  2 z 2 k  t

1   2 T  1  2T 1   T  q 1 T
 r  + +  sin  + =
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2   2 r 2 sin      k  t
▪ Governing Equation of Heat Conduction describes heat conduction phenomena
inside the medium/domain, [(x, y, z)/(r, , z)/(r, , θ)] at any time (t)

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + =
x 2
y x k  t

1   T  1  2T  2T q 1 T
r  + + + =
r r  r  r 2  2 z 2 k  t

1   2 T  1  2T 1   T  q 1 T
 r  + +  sin  + =
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2   2 r 2 sin    r  k  t

▪ Appropriate Boundary Condition (B.C) and Initial Condition (I.C) are Necessary for
the solution of Heat Conduction equation.

▪ Order of differentiation with respect to any dimension/direction is two while with

respect to time it is one. So at least two Boundary Conditions are necessary for each
space dimension/direction while only one condition with respect to any instant of
time must be known
▪ Boundary Conditions (BC) are the mathematical expression of thermal condition at
the boundary of the system.

▪ Initial Condition (IC) is the mathematical expression of thermal condition of the

system at the instant t = 0.
 Thermal Boundary Conditions (BC’s):

1. Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

Also known as:
▪ Boundary Condition of First Kind
▪ Dirichlet Boundary Condition
▪ May be implied by boiling/condensing any liquid at
specified pressure

2. Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition:

Heat flux, q = Heat Transfer rate per unit area (W/m2)

Also known as:

• Boundary Condition of Second Kind
• Neumann Boundary Condition
 Thermal Boundary Conditions (BC’s):

2. A. Insulated Boundary Condition: (Boundary Heat Flux, q = 0)

2.B. Symmetry Boundary Condition:

(Any Flux at the line of symmetry = 0)
 Thermal Boundary Conditions (BC’s):
3. Convective Boundary Condition

Also known as:

• Boundary Condition of Third Kind

4. Radiation Boundary Condition

4. Interface Boundary Condition

The boundary conditions at an interface are

based on the requirements that:

(1) two bodies in contact must have the

same temperature at the area of contact
and

(2) an interface (which is a surface) cannot

store any energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an interface must be
the same.
Problem :1
Determine:
1. Volumetric Heat Generation Rate in the wall
2. Surface heat fluxes at x = -L and x = L
3. Heat Transfer Coefficients at x = -L and x = L
4. Obtain the expression for heat flux across the wall
5. If the source of the heat generation is suddenly deactivated what is the rate of
change of energy stored in the wall at this instant?
Problem :2
Consider a large plane wall of thickness L = 0.4 m, thermal conductivity k = 1.8 W/m·K, and
surface area A = 30 m2 . The left side of the wall is maintained at a constant temperature of T1=
90°C while the right side loses heat by convection to the surrounding air at T = 25°C with a heat
transfer coefficient of h = 24 W/m2·°C. Assuming constant thermal conductivity and no heat
generation in the wall:
(a) express the differential equation and the boundary conditions for steady one
dimensional heat conduction through the wall,
(b) obtain a relation for the variation of temperature in the wall by solving the differential
equation, and
(c) evaluate the rate of heat transfer through the wall.

Conduction Convection

T= 90 C T= 25  C
h = 24 W/m2.K
L=0.4 m

K = 1.8 W/m.K

x
X=0 X= L
Problem :3
A 2 kW resistance heater wire with thermal conductivity of k = 20 W/m·K, a diameter of D = 4
mm, and a length of L = 0.9 m is used to boil water. If the outer surface temperature of the
resistance wire is Ts = 230°C, determine the temperature at the center of the wire.
Problem:4
Problem:5
Problem:7
Considering steady state heat flow through a conical isotropic homogeneous medium as shown
in the following figure, derive the expression of temperature distribution T(x) across the
medium.

Insulated Boundary

0.12 m
0.2 m
0.06 m
Q = 50 W