ME 305: Heat Transfer

Jan. 2022 Semester

Dr. Md. Nasim Hasan

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BUET, Dhaka-1000
 Heat Transfer
 Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one
system/location to another as a result of temperature difference
 The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers is heat transfer
 Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamic analysis determine the amount of heat transfer for
any system undergoing any process from one equilibrium state to
another
 Thermodynamics gives no indication about how long the process
will take!
Let us consider the case of hot coffee getting
cold in a thermo bottle from 90 C to 60 C

Amount: Simple: Q= mcpT

Time: Don‟t know!

 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from

one equilibrium state to another. Heat transfer, on the other hand,
deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a
non-equilibrium phenomenon.
 Thermodynamics: Framework for Heat Transfer
 Study of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of
thermodynamics alone.
 However, the laws of thermodynamics constitute the framework
for the science of heat transfer.
 First law: Rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to
the rate of increase of the energy of that system.
Thermodynamics: Framework for Heat Transfer
 Second law: Heat transfer occurs in the direction of
decreasing temperature

 Thermodynamics Tells us:

 How much heat is transferred (Q)
 How much work is transferred (W)
 Final State of the system

 Heat Transfer Tells us:

 How (in which mode) Q transferred
 At what rate Q is transferred
 Temperature Distribution inside the system
 Analogy among Heat Transfer, Electric Current
and Fluid Flow
 For Heat Transfer: Presence of a
temperature difference is must.
 No net heat transfer between two
mediums at the same temperature.
 Temperature difference is the
driving force similar to voltage
difference and pressure in case for
electric current flow and fluid flow
respectively.

Process Governing Parameter From To

Heat Transfer Temperature High Temperature Low Temperature
Electric Current Voltage High Voltage Low Voltage
Fluid Pressure High Pressure Low Pressure
 Heat Transfer Applications

 Human Comfort
 Energy production and conversion
 Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
 Process Control (Evaporation, Distillation, Drying)
 Household Appliances (Oven, Toaster, Stove)
 Automobile/Power Plants/ Energy Conversion
 Engineering Heat Transfer Analysis
Engineering Heat Transfer problems belong to two classes:

 Rating Problem: determination of the heat transfer rate for an

specific/existing system at a specified temperature difference

 Sizing Problem: determination of the size of a system in order to

transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature
difference

 A heat transfer process or equipment can be studied either:

 Experimentally (testing and taking measurements)
 Expensive and Time Consuming
 Accuracy depends on Measurement/Experimental Error
 Analytically (by analysis or calculations)
 Fast and inexpensive
 Accuracy depends on assumption and idealization
 Best practice: Modeling or Analytical solution to reducing the
choices to just a few and then verifying the findings through
experiment
 Heat and Other forms of Energy
 The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity are referred to
as the microscopic energy. The sum of all microscopic forms of
energy is called the internal energy of a system
 U: Total internal energy (J)
 u: Specific internal energy (J/kg)
 Internal energy: Sum of the kinetic and potential energies of
the molecules.
• The portion of the internal energy of a system associated
with the kinetic energy of the molecules is called sensible
energy or sensible heat (For Ideal Gas: Avg. Molecular Kinetic
Energy= 1.5kBT, kB: Boltzman Constant, T: Absolute Temperature.
• The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is
called latent energy or latent heat.
• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule is called chemical (or bond) energy
• The internal energy associated with the bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy.
 Internal Energy, Flow Energy & Enthalpy

 Systems involving fluid flow, invoke the term “Flow energy or

Flow Work” (P, P: Pressure, : Specific Volume) in connection
with the internal energy content (u)
 A combination of properties called enthalpy, (h) is used in this
case to represent microscopic energy content as:

h  u  Pv
 System involving “No Flow” (stationary), microscopic energy
content is represented by the internal energy (u)
 Specific Heats and Thermodynamic Relations
 Specific Heat: Energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree (J/kg.K)

 In thermodynamics, two kinds of specific heats:

 specific heat at constant volume, cv
 specific heat at constant pressure, cp

 The specific heat at constant volume cv can be viewed as the energy

required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree as the volume is held constant.
 The energy required to do the same as the pressure is held constant is
the specific heat at constant pressure cp.
 cp is greater than cv because at constant pressure the system is allowed
to expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied
to the system.
dh du
cp  ; cv  ;
dT dT
 Specific Heats and Thermodynamic Relations
h  u  Pv
Pr ove that : c p  cv  R
dh  du  Pdv
(Cons tan t Pr essure Pr ocess)
For Ideal Gas :
dh
cp  ; dh  c p dT
dT
du
cv  ; du  cv dT
dT
Pv  RT ; Pdv  RdT
(Cons tan t Pr essure Pr ocess)
c p dT  cv dT  RdT
c p  cv  R
Cp > Cv as Cp allows some flow work
 Factors affecting Specific Heats
 Specific heats (cp, cv) depend on
Temperature and Pressure

 For an ideal gas, however, they depend

on Temperature only:
For Ideal Gas :
dh du
cp  ; cv 
dT dT
dh  c p dT ; du  cv dT ( Differential Change)
h  c p , avg T ; u  cv, avg T ( Finite Change)
H  mc p , avg T ; U  mcv, avg T
h, u : Specific Pr operty; H ,U :Total Pr operty
c p , avg  Average c p over T range
cv, avg  Average cv over T range
 Factors affecting Specific Heats

 For solid and liquid, specific heats does not change with pressure as
they are incompressible (dV = 0). So, specific heat depends on
temperature only:

For Solid and Liquid :

c p  cv  cavg
u  cavg T
U  mcavg T
Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux

Q  Heat Transfer Rate ( J / s )

t  Time int erval ( s )
Q  Amount of Heat Transfer ( J )
t

Q  Q dt  Q t
0

 Q (J ) Q Q
Q  ( J / s)  (W )
t ( s ) t t
q  Heat Flux  Heat Transfer Rate / Area
Q Q
q   (W / m 2 )
A At
First Law of Thermodynamics

d
Steady State System: 0
dt

System with internal generation:

 Energy Balance for Closed System

 A closed system consists of a fixed mass.

 The total energy E for most systems encountered in practice consists of
the internal energy, U
 Essentially a stationary system that don‟t involve any changes in their
velocity or elevation during a process

Stationary Closed System :

Ein  Eout  U  mcv T
Stationary Closed System, No Work:
Q  U  mcv T
 Energy Balance for Steady Flow System
(Control Volume)
 Many devices involve mass flow in and out of a system, and are modeled
as control volumes
 Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions
• Steady: no change with time at a specified location
• Unsteady: change with time at a specified location
 Uniform implies no change with position throughout a surface or region at
a specified time
 Non-uniform implies change with position throughout a surface or region
at a specified time
 Steady Flow Process: Total energy content in C.V. is Constant; that is
Rate of energy in to C.V. is equal to Rate of Energy out from C.V.
 Energy Balance for Steady Flow System
(Control Volume)
For Steady Flow System
ECV  Cons tan t ;
ECV  0; Ein  Eout ;
Ein  Energy entering the C.V .
Eout  Energy leaving the C.V .
dEin dEout 
In rate form :  ; Ein  E out
dt dt
E in  Rate of inco min g Energy to C.V .
Eout  Rate of outgoing Energy from C.V .

Volumetric Flow Rate( )  Averaged Velocity (v)  Flow Area ( Ac )

Mass Flow Rate (m )  Density  Volumetric Flow Rate  vAc
Q  m h  m c T
p
 Surface Energy Balance for H.T. Analysis
 A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy storage!
 A surface is a fictitious system boundary whose energy balance remains
constant during a process (just like a steady-state or steady-flow system)
 This relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions since the
surface energy balance does not involve heat generation/storage since a
surface does not have a volume.

Surface Energy Balance :

E  E ;
in out
Q1  Q 2  Q 3 ;
Q  Q  Q  0;
1 2 3
 Problem#01

4 
Total Heat Transfer :Q  mcavg T   r 3  cavg T
3 
r  5 cm  5  10 2 m;   8950 kg / m3 ; cavg  395 J / kg.o C
T  (150  100) o C  50o C
Q  92.55  103 J
Q 92.55  103
Q avg    51.41W
t 30  60 s
Q avg Q avg 51.41 w
qavg     1636 W / m 2
Area (4r 2 ) (4  0.052 )
Problem#02

Qw  m c p , avg T
QH  7  103 W
Qw  QH
m c p , avg T  7  103 W
T  70  15o C  55 oC
c p , avg  c p @ Tavg
 c p @ 42.5o C
m  ??
 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat from a high temperature region to low temperature region may be
transferred by any of three basic modes:

a. Conduction
b. convection, and
c. radiation
 Conduction Heat Transfer
In Conduction, heat transfer takes place due to temperature difference in a solid
body or between solid bodies in thermal contact, without mixing of mass. The
rate of heat transfer through conduction is governed by the Fourier’s law of heat
conduction such as:

Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where, „Q‟ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), „k‟ is the thermal conductivity
of body material (W/m.K), „A‟ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of
heat flow (m2) and „dT/dx‟ is the temperature gradient of the section (K/m).
 Problem#03
T
Q   kA
x
if x  0, then
 dT
Q   kA
dx

Brick wall : 5 m  6 m; k  0.69W / m.k

Q  ?
 T (5  20)
Q   kA  0.69  (5  6)  W
x 0.30
 1035W
 Convection Heat Transfer
In convection, heat is transferred to a moving fluid at the surface over which it flows
by combined molecular diffusion and bulk flow. Convection involves conduction and
fluid flow. The rate of convective heat transfer is governed by the Newton’s law of
cooling:
Q = hA(Ts-T∞)
Where „Ts„ is the surface temperature „T∞‟ is the outside temperature „h‟ is the
coefficient of convection heat transfer, „A‟ is the heat transfer surface area.
Convection heat transfer process may be:
 Natural convection or forced
convection on the basis of external
fluid flow assistance
 Single phase convection or phase
change convection
(Boiling/Condensation) depending on
the phase change of the fluid involved
 Radiation Heat Transfer
In Radiation, heat is transferred in the form of electromagnetic wave from one
body to another body. No medium for radiation to occur.
The rate of heat radiation that can be emitted by a surface at a thermodynamic
temperature is based on “Stefan-Boltzmann law”:

Q = AT4
Where “” is the surface emissivity, “T” is the absolute surface temperature
“A” is the surface area.  = 5.67108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
 Thermal Conductivity
Recall the Fourier‟s law of heat conduction: Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where, „Q‟ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), „K‟ is the thermal conductivity
of body material (W/m.K), „A‟ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of
heat flow (m2) and „dT/dx‟ is the temperature gradient of the section (K/m).

k = -Q/A (dT/dx)
dT = T1-T2; dx = d; dT/dx = (T2-T1)/d

If A = 1 unit (m2); dT/dx = 1 unit

(K/m), then;
k=Q

Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer

through per unit area of the material under per unit temperature difference
across a unit length.
A good thermal conductor has high thermal conductivity while material with low
thermal conductivity is called insulator.
Unit of thermal conductivity is W/m.K
 Thermal Conductivity of various Materials
 Thermal conductivity in
decreasing order:

Metal>> Non Metal Solid>>

Liquid>> Gas

 Thermal conductivity of gases is

proportional to the square root
of the absolute temperature T,
and inversely proportional to
the square root of the molar
mass.

 Like gases, the conductivity of

liquids decreases with
increasing molar mass.

 Liquid metals such as mercury and sodium have high thermal conductivities and
are very suitable for use in applications where a high heat transfer rate to a liquid
is desired, as in nuclear power plants.
What Governs conduction in solids, liquids and gases?
In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects:

i) the lattice vibrational waves

ii) the free flow of electrons in the solid.

The relatively high thermal conductivities of pure metals are primarily due to the
abundant free electrons.

The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the
molecules are arranged. For example, diamond, which is a highly ordered
crystalline solid, has the highest known thermal conductivity at room temperature.
What Governs conduction in solids, liquids and gases?
In liquids and gases, heat conduction occurs mainly through two mechanisms:
i) molecular collision between atoms and
ii) molecular diffusion

As the number of collisions increases with temperature, the exchange of energy among
molecules increases. This helps in the transport of heat energy through the medium.

Molecular diffusion is the random movement of molecules in a medium. As the random

movement of molecules increases, it obstructs the transport of heat energy in a
particular direction.

Increase in temperature results in higher

molecular collision while as well as higher
molecular diffusion.

Molecular collision is predominant for gas while

molecular diffusion is predominant for liquid.
Therefore, thermal conductivity for gas increases
with temperature while for liquid it decreases
with temperature
Temperature Dependency of Thermal Conductivity

 Thermal conductivity of
gases gradually increases
with temperature

 Unlike gases, the

conductivity of liquids
decreases with increasing
temperature except water
that firstly increases with
temperature and then
decreases.

 In solids, the conductivity

of solids decreases with
increasing temperature.

 Some solids show

tremendous raise in
conductivity at very low
temperature, for example:
Cu
 Thermal Diffusivity ()
The product Cp, ( being density ( kg/m3) and Cp is the specific heat (J/kg. C) is
called the heat capacity of a material in unit volume basis (J/m3.C).
Thermal diffusivity () which represents how fast heat diffuses through a material
and is defined as:

Here Thermal conductivity “k” represents how well a material conducts heat, and
the heat capacity, “Cp” represents how much energy a material stores per unit
volume.

 The thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume. In a sense,
thermal diffusivity is the measure of thermal inertia.

 A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity. The larger the thermal diffusivity, the
faster the propagation of heat into the medium.

 A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat will be conducted further
 Thermal Diffusivity ()

 Let us consider sudden release of heat from a point source.

 Heat will propagate in all directions from a point just after been released. It is
similar to growing up of an sphere. With time heat will propagate forming an
imaginary sphere getting bigger and bigger around the point source.

 The propagation rate is related to the rate of increase of the sphere surface area
and hence any propagation parameter in 3D has the unit of m2/s.

 Kinetic viscosity is a property of a fluid that describes how momentum variation

propagates in that fluid and often called as momentum diffusivity (m2/s)
 Role of Thermal Diffusivity ()

To 0.5To

Medium Silver Copper Steel Glass

 (m2/s) 17010-6 10310-6 12.910-6 0.5910-6
t 9.5 min 16.5 min 2.2 hr 2.0 day