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What is Conduction?
 Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids
 Metals are extremely good at conducting heat
 Non-metals are poor at conducting heat whilst liquids and gases are extremely poor
 Poor conductors are called insulators
 Materials containing small pockets of trapped air are especially good at insulating, as air
is a gas and hence a poor conductor

How does Conduction Occur?

When a substance is heated, the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more

As they do so they bump into each other, transferring energy from atom to atom

Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other

Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can collide with the
atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material

Demonstrating Conduction
A simple experiment to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can
be carried out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below

The above apparatus consists of 4

different metal strips of equal width and length arrange around an insulated circle
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 Ball bearings can be stuck to each of the strips and equal distance from the centre, using a
small amount of wax
 The strips should then be turned upside down and the centre heated gently using a candle,
so that each of the strips is heated at the point where they meet
 When the heat is conducted along to the ball bearing, the wax will melt and the ball
bearing will drop
 By timing how long this takes for each of the strips, their relative thermal conductivities
can be determined
Exam Tip
If a question on heat mentions metal, the answer will probably be to do with conduction

What is Convection?
 Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
(Convection cannot happen in solids)
 When a liquid (or gas) is heated:
o The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand
o This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings
o The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas moves in to take
its place
o Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down again

o The resulting motion is called a convection current

When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes less dense and rises

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Demonstrating Convection
 A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of water and
placing a few crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one side, as shown in the
diagram above
 When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will dissolve in the
heated water and rise along with the warmed water, revealing the convection current

Diagram showing an experiment with potassium permanganate to demonstrate convection

Exam Tip

If a question on heat mentions liquids or gases the answer will probably be about convection.

Heat does not rise (only hot gases or liquids rise).

Radiation: Basics
 All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the more they emit
 Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – infrared
 Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun
 The colour of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation

 Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation (think about black leather
seats in strong sunshine) but also very good at emitting it (when it goes dark those seats
cool down quickly)
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 Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little. They also emit very little,
though, and so take longer to cool down

Factors Affecting Emission of Radiation

 The amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object depends on a number of factors:

o The temperature of the object (hotter = more radiation)
o The colour of the object (black = more radiation)
o The surface area of the object (greater surface area = more area for radiation to
be emitted from)

Demonstrating Radiation

 To demonstrate the absorption of thermal radiation:

o Take two conical flasks – one painted with silver paint, the other with black paint
– and place thermometers and bungs in them
o Measure and record their initial temperatures
o Place the two flasks an equal distance from an incandescent light bulb (a good
source of radiation) and switch the bulb on
o After a few minutes (between 2 and 5) switch the bulb off and record the new
temperatures of the flasks
(The black flask’s temperature should have increased by more
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To demonstrate the emission of thermal radiation:

Fill the shiny beakers with boiling water

Once each beaker reaches a set temperature (e.g. 90 °c) start a stopwatch and allow it to cool for a
set amount of time (e.g. 10 minutes)

After this time, take a new temperature measurement and record the change in temperature

(The black beaker should have cooled by slightly more than the shiny beaker, because it emitted
more thermal radiation)

Exam Tip

If a question on heat mentions the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer
will probably be about thermal radiation.

Shiny things do not reflect heat (they reflect thermal radiation).

Black things do not absorb heat (they absorb thermal radiation)

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Consequences of Energy Transfer

Conduction
 The main means of thermal energy transfer in solids
 When heated, atoms vibrate more, knocking into each other and transferring energy from
atom to atom as a result
 Metals are excellent conductors; Non-metals are poor; Liquids and gases are very poor
 If a question mentions metals, the answer will probably have something to do with
conduction
 Trapped air is a very good insulator of heat. Air is a gas and so is a poor conductor.
Trapping it prevents it from circulating and forming a convection current

Convection
 The means of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases
 When heated, a gas will expand and become less dense. This causes it to rise (a
convection current). Cooler (denser) gas falls, replacing the hot gas
 If a question refers to a liquid or gas (that isn’t trapped) then convection currents will
probably form
 Heat sources placed at the bottom of things will generally create convection currents.
Likewise, cooling units placed high up will cool any rising air, causing it to sink again

Thermal Radiation
 The only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
 Thermal radiation is heat transfer by infrared (part of the electromagnetic spectrum)
 Black objects are good at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation; shiny objects are poor
at emitting and absorbing it
 If a question refers to the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer
will probably have something to do with thermal radiation
 If a piece of apparatus contains a vacuum then radiation will be the only way heat can
travel through that part of the apparatus

Consequences Example Question

In many hot countries it is common for houses to produce hot water using solar panels
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Explain the features of the solar panel that help it heat the water efficiently

Answer:

 The thermal radiation (infrared) is able to pass through the glass sheet
 The black metal backing sheet absorbs the thermal radiation (sunlight)
 Being metal (an excellent conductor) it then conducts it into the copper pipes
 The copper pipes (also metal) then conduct the heat into the water
 The insulated material reduces the conduction of heat through the back of the panel,
decreasing heat loss
 The glass also traps air which is a good insulator, preventing heat loss due to conduction
from the front of the panel and preventing heat loss by convection (due to the air being
trapped)

Exam Tip

A common mistake made by candidates when explaining how an insulator keeps something warm
is to state something along the lines of “The object warms up the insulator which then warms the
object up”.

Avoid giving this kind of answer!

The real explanation is:
The insulator contains trapped air, which is a poor conductor of heat
Trapping the air also prevents it from transferring heat by convection
This reduces the rate of heat loss from the object, meaning that it will stay warmer for longer
Other things to watch out for:
Heat does not rise (only hot gases or liquids rise)
Shiny things do not reflect heat (they reflect thermal radiation)
Black things do not absorb heat (they absorb thermal radiation)
And remember, a good answer will often include references to more than one method of thermal
energy transfer.