Section 9: Runoff-Routing

Models

• Concept of subcatchment modelling

• Conceptual hillslope model
• Conceptual kinematic wave model for stream routing
• Numerical implementation
 Purpose
Runoff-routing models simulate the behaviour of a catchment during a
rainfall or storm event. Their principal task is to predict the hydrograph at
various locations within the catchment which results from the storm
rainfall.
Often there is little or no streamflow data and the designer is required to
make an estimate of a flood corresponding to some specified annual
exceedance probability (AEP).
However, because estimates of rainfall of varying probabilities can be
made using meteorological data, the designer can use a rainfall-runoff
model to estimate the design flood hydrograph whose peak has the same
AEP as the rainfall intensity.
This approach assumes that:
1. Average rainfall intensity of a given exceedance probability
generates a flood event of the same probability. This can be
approximately achieved if initial conditions are properly
selected.
2. The rainfall-runoff model gives a true simulation of the
transformation of storm rainfall into a flood hydrograph. 9-2
 Purpose (2)
Runoff-routing models provide the design discharge input to hydraulic
models and are typically applied in the following areas of engineering
hydrology:
• Spillway design
• Flood routing studies
• Detention basin and trunk drainage design.

Runoff-routing models must be able to:

i) Allow for the spatial variation of rainfall over the catchment.
ii) Simulate a hydrograph at any point in the catchment.
iii) Allow for effects of urbanization, channel modification, reservoir
storages and retarding basins.

9-3
kinDog Event Rainfall Runoff Model
Consider kinDog model
It is typical of the genre of sub-catchment rainfall-runoff model
Commercial models include RAFTS, URBS, RORB

Rainfall p
Surface
supply ss

Hillslope nonlinear
store
t Q
hs

Channel
Infiltration i network
t
Stream
Subsurface supply hydrograph
Subsurface linear sg
store
hg
t
9-4
 Catchment Subdivision
Reservoir element

Subcatchment element
4
3

2 Guidelines for subcatchment elements:

i) The elements must be proper catchments. They
1 5 must satisfy the topographic requirement for a
catchment, namely, that all runoff originating within the
element must pass through the element outlet.
ii) Elements should have approximately the same
8 mainstream length L.
6 iii) Elements should have approximately constant
7 mainstream slope.
iv) Use sufficient elements to permit adequate
9 description of rainfall spatial variability. KinDog
assumes rainfall over an element is spatially uniform.
10 v) Use sufficient elements to enable discharge to be
11
estimated at all desired locations within the catchment.
Outlet
Usually about 10 elements will suffice.
9-5
 Catchment Subdivision

Length L Outlet
Inlet
Mainstream
channel

Slope S = (Inlet elevation - outlet elevation)/L

A = area of subcatchment element

L = length of mainstream channel
B = A/L = average width of subcatchment elemennt

9-6
 Hillslope Runoff: Initial Loss
Rainfall rate p

hs=0

hs negative
Initial loss IL Depth below field capacity

At the beginning of the storm the soil is unsaturated and the water held by the
soil is in tension. This means capillary forces far exceed gravity forces resulting
in the soil water being effectively immobilised.
Rainfall at the start of the storm must first fill this tension storage which has a
depth of IL (m).
IL is referred to as the initial loss. It is not a catchment parameter – it depends
on the rainfall history leading up to the storm in question.
9-7
 Hillslope Runoff: Infiltration and Recharge
Rainfall rate p
hs=0
surface flow ss
hs

Initial loss IL

Recharge at maximum rate φ

when hs is positive

Once the tension storage has been filled, it is assumed soil water is free to
move under the influence of gravity.
Rainfall can infiltrate into the soil at a maximum rate called the continuing loss
rate φ (m/s) - the infiltrated water moves downward to recharge the subsurface
store.
If the rainfall rate exceeds φ then the excess rainfall ponds on the surface with
average depth hs (m). Ponded water will move downslope as overland flow to
the stream channel. 9-8
 Hillslope Runoff: Infiltration and Recharge (2)
Once initial loss is satisfied effective rainfall rate p e equals actual rainfall rate:

⎧ t −1
1
⎪
⎪
p t if cumulative rainfall depth to time t ∑
i =0 2
(pi + pi +1 ) ∆t > IL
pte = ⎨ t −1
⎪0 if ∑ 1 (pi + pi+1 ) ∆t ≤ IL
⎪⎩ i =0 2

The notation pj refers to the rainfall rate at time j∆t where ∆t is a fixed time interval ∆t .

Note ∆t should be selected sufficiently small to avoid truncation error.

Infiltration and hence recharge to subsurface storage depends on hs and occurs at the rate i.

It is defined by

⎧φ if ponding occurs, namely pte+ ∆t ∆t + h s ≥ φ ∆t

it + ∆t = ⎨ e
⎩ pt + ∆t ∆t + ht + ∆t otherwise
s

9-9
 Subsurface Runoff Routing
precipitation pe

surface water of
average depth hs

lateral flow to
channel s = ss + sg
infiltration i surface supply ss

subsurface supply sg

channel flow Q

KinDog uses a linear storage to simulate the delay and attenuation of

infiltration as it moves through the subsurface. The rate of subsurface supply
per unit area sg is related to the depth in the subsurface store hg by

h g = Cg Bs g

where Cg (s m-1) is the subsurface supply parameter.

9-10
 Subsurface Runoff Routing (2)
precipitation pe

surface water of
average depth hs

lateral flow to
channel s = ss + sg
infiltration i surface supply s s

subsurface supply sg

channel flow Q

Consider a mass balance on the subsurface water moving toward the stream.

The rate of water entering the subsurface store is iA, while the rate of water leaving as discharge into
the stream is As g .

dh g
The rate of change of storage is A .
dt

dh g ds g
Conservation of mass yields the continuity equation i - s g = = Cg B
dt dt

it +∆t + it stg+∆t + stg Cg B g

which, in finite difference form, becomes
2
−
2
=
∆t
st +∆t − stg ( )
2Cg B
stg − stg + it +∆t + it
Rearranging yields the explicit form stg+∆t = ∆t
2Cg B
1+ 9-11
∆t
 Hillslope Runoff: Overland Flow Routing
precipitation pe

surface water of
average depth hs

lateral flow to
channel s = ss + sg
infiltration i surface supply ss

subsurface supply sg

channel flow Q

Rainfall that does not infiltrate becomes overland flow (or quickflow) which enters
the mainstream channel as lateral inflow.

Overland flow encounters resistance as it moves downslope. This creates

temporary storage on the hillslope which delays and attenuates the rainfall
excess. KinDog simulates these dynamics using a conceptual nonlinear level-
pool reservoir 9-12
Hillslope Runoff: Overland Flow Routing (2) precipitation pe

surface water of
average depth hs

lateral flow to
channel s = ss + sg
infiltration i surface supply ss

subsurface supply sg

channel flow Q

ss = surface supply rate into the stream expressed as discharge per unit hillslope area (m/s).

hs = average depth of ponded water.

qs = overland flow discharging into stream per unit length of stream

∝ (h s )
As s 1/ γ
qs =
L

where γ is a parameter to be determined from observations on actual catchments.

Rearranging and noting B = A/L produces

γ
h s = Cs Bγ ss

where Cs is the surface supply parameter with units m (1-2γ )sγ . 9-13
 Hillslope Runoff: Conceptual Parameters
B B

L L

Channel flow
Overland flow

(a) (b)
KINDOG Actual

Within a subcatchment actual overland flow paths shorter than B/2

Therefore, parameters Cs and γ cannot be meaningfully measured from physical

characteristics of the hillslope.
9-14
The only meaningful way to estimate Cs and γ is to calibrate to observed storm events.
 Hillslope Runoff: Continuity Equation
precipitation pe

surface water of
average depth hs

lateral flow to
channel s = ss + sg
infiltration i surface supply ss

subsurface supply sg

channel flow Q

Mass balance on the surface water moving as overland flow:

Rate of water supplying the surface is p e A (m3/s).

Rate of water leaving the surface as infiltration and discharge into the stream is A ( s s + i ) (m3/s).

dh s 3
Rate of change of storage is A (m /s).
dt

Conservation of mass for the surface water yields the continuity equation
γ
dh s γ ds
s
p −i − s =
e s
= Cs B
dt dt 9-15
 Hillslope Runoff: Finite Difference Solution
Finite difference form of hillslope continuity equation

pte+∆t + pte it +∆t + it sts+∆t + sts Cs Bγ s γ

2
−
2
−
2
=
∆t
(
st +∆t − sts
γ
)
Rearrange to move all the known terms at time t to the right hand side

2Cs Bγ s γ 2Cs Bγ sγ s
∆t
st +∆t + st +∆t =
s

∆t
( )
st − st + pte+∆t + pte − ( it +∆t + it )

s
from which the solution for st +∆t can be obtained given the right hand side using a root
solver such as Newton-Raphson.

When ponding occurs, sts+∆t > 0 and infiltration occurs at the maximum rate it +∆t = φ .
These conditions imply that when ponding occurs

2Cs Bγ s γ 2C Bγ γ
∆t
(
st +∆t + sts+∆t + it +∆t = s sts − sts + pte+∆t + pte − it ≥ φ
∆t
)
This yields the "ponding test" to determine the infiltration rate:

⎧ 2Cs Bγ sγ
⎪φ if st − sts + ( pte + pte+∆t ) − it ≥ φ
∆t
⎪
⎪ 2Cs Bγ sγ 2Cs Bγ sγ
it +∆t = ⎨ st − sts + ( pte + pte+∆t ) − it if φ > st − sts + ( pte + pte+∆t ) − it > 0
⎪ ∆t ∆t 9-16
⎪0 otherwise
⎪⎩
 Hillslope Runoff: Example
Hillslope subjected to 15-minute, 150 mm/hr burst with the following parameters:

γ = 1, Cs = 1 s/m, B = 200 m, φ = 2.5 mm/hr, IL = 10 mm and ∆t = 60 s.

2Cs B γ 2 *1s/m * 200m 20

Then = = and eqn (8) yields the following equation for s
∆t 60 s 3

3 ⎛ 17 sts ⎞
sts+ ∆t = ⎜⎜ + p et + ∆t + pte − (it + ∆t + it )⎟⎟
2Cs Bγ sγ
st − sts + ( pte + pte+ ∆t ) − it
23 ⎝ 3 ⎠ Ponding test function
∆t

effective
cumulative precipitati
p (mm/hr) precipitation on rate ponding Infiltration surface supply s 160.00
Time (min) Rainfall rate (mm) (mm/hr) test (mm/hr) (mm/hr)
140.00
0.00 150.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Surface supply
1.00 150.00 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 120.00 Effective rainfall
2.00 150.00 5.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
100.00
3.00 150.00 7.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

mm/hr
4.00 150.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 80.00
5.00 150.00 12.50 150.00 150.00 2.50 19.24
6.00 150.00 15.00 150.00 406.52 2.50 52.70 60.00
7.00 150.00 17.50 150.00 596.12 2.50 77.43 40.00
8.00 150.00 20.00 150.00 736.27 2.50 95.71
9.00 150.00 22.50 150.00 839.85 2.50 109.22 20.00
10.00 150.00 25.00 150.00 916.41 2.50 119.21
0.00
11.00 150.00 27.50 150.00 973.00 2.50 126.59
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
12.00 150.00 30.00 150.00 1014.83 2.50 132.04
13.00 150.00 32.50 150.00 1045.74 2.50 136.07 Time, min

14.00 150.00 35.00 150.00 1068.59 2.50 139.06

15.00 150.00 37.50 150.00 1085.48 2.50 141.26
16.00 0.00 38.75 0.00 947.96 2.50 123.32
17.00 0.00 38.75 0.00 696.32 2.50 90.50
18.00 0.00 38.75 0.00 510.32 2.50 66.24
19.00 0.00 38.75 0.00 372.85 2.50 48.31
20.00 0.00 38.75 0.00 271.24 2.50 35.05
9-17
 Hillslope Runoff: Role of Cs
180.00
160.00
140.00
Surface supply
Effective rainfall
As Cs → 0 the hillslope responds more rapidly to rainfall.
120.00
Cs=0.1 s/m
γ
100.00
mm/hr

s
80.00
γ = 1.0 γ ds
60.00
p − i − s = Cs B
s
→0 as Cs → 0
40.00
20.00
dt
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00
Time, min
30.00 40.00 50.00
implying that

160.00
ss → p − i as Cs → 0
140.00
Surface supply

Therefore, as Cs → 0, net rainfall tends to move

Effective rainfall
120.00
Cs=1.0 s/m
100.00

γ = 1.0
mm/hr

80.00

60.00

40.00
instantaneously into the stream.
20.00

0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
Time, min

160.00

140.00
As Cs increases there is more
Surface supply
120.00 Effective rainfall temporary storage on hillslope
100.00
Cs=10.0 s/m with reduction and delay in peak
mm/hr

80.00

60.00 γ = 1.0 flow

40.00

20.00

0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
Time, min

9-18
 Channel Routing
The surface and subsurface hillslope storages provide lateral inflow into the mainstream channel

q= (
A s
L
) ( )
s + s g = B s s + s g = Bs

where q is the lateral inflow per unit length (m2/s) of channel and s is the total supply.

Control volume
dx
Continuity equation
Q y ∂Q ∂Ar
Q + ∂Q/∂x dx + =q
∂x ∂t
So x
1
(a)
where Q is stream discharge (m3/s)
Ar is flow area (m2)

ρβ Q V
ρβ Q V + ∂(ρβQV)/ ∂x dx
Hydrostatic ( Momentum (St Venant) equation
pressure
∂y 1 ∂Q 1 ∂ ⎛ β Q2 ⎞
S f = So − − − ⎜ ⎟
τ P dx ρ g ∂y/∂x dx ∂x gAr ∂t gAr ∂x ⎝ Ar ⎠
ρ g A dx
(b) where So is bed slope and Sf is friction slope
9-19
 Kinematic Wave Approximation
∂y 1 ∂Q 1 ∂ ⎛ β Q2 ⎞ Convective acceleration
S f = So − − − ⎜ ⎟ Æ Only important if rapid
∂x gAr ∂t gAr ∂x ⎝ Ar ⎠ changes in cross section

Inertial acceleration Æ Only

Bed resistance Gravity Pressure Æ Only important if hydrograph rises
important if bed slope of and falls rapidly
the order of 0.5%

In most catchments slopes are steep (except at

floodplain) and hydrograph changes slowly
ÆOnly gravity and resistance are important
Æ Kinematic wave approximation

S f = So = S
171 yn
Kinematic wave approximation is satisfactory provided Tp ≥
SoVn

where Tp is the wave period of a sinusoidal perturbation of steady uniform flow

with normal flow velocity Vn and normal flow depth yn. 9-20
 Kinematic Wave Speed
Kinematic wave approximation implies flow is at normal depth (So=Sf).

Therefore exists a unique relationship between discharge Q and flow area Ar.

Re-express the continuity equation

∂Ar ∂Q ∂Ar ∂Ar dQ

+ = + =q
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x dAr

Provided

dQ dx
=c=
dAr dt

we can write the continuity eqn as a total derivative of Ar with respect to time

dAr ∂Ar ∂Ar dx

= + =q
dt ∂t ∂x dt

Thus, when there is no lateral inflow q, Ar and hence Q will appear to be constant to an observer
moving with velocity c.

We call c the kinematic wave speed (m/s).

Note that this is not the same as stream velocity V which is defined as Q/Ar.
9-21
 Conveyance-Area Function
Overbank channel
flow m = 1.0
Because the kinematic wave approximation sets the friction
slope equal to bed slope Manning's equation can be used to
develop the following relationship between discharge and
flow area
2/3
1⎛ A ⎞
Q = VAr = Ar ⎜ r ⎟ S 1 / 2 = KS 1 / 2
n⎝ P ⎠

where K is the channel conveyance (m3/s) defined as

5
Ar 3
K= 2 with n being Manning's channel roughness and P
nP 3
the wetted perimeter.

Because the wetted perimeter P is strongly correlated with

flow area Ar, an exponential relationship between K and Ar
can be used

K = Cr Ar
m

where Cr is the channel conveyance coefficient and m the

channel conveyance exponent.

Inbank channel
9-22
flow m = 1.4
 Conveyance-Area Function for Natural
Channels
For natural channels inbank flows Cr ~ 6 m0.2 s-1 and m ~ 1.4, while for overbank flows m tends
to 1. This result is consistent with other evidence which, though not definitive, suggests the
conveyance exponent m approaches 1 as flows exceed bankfull.

Below Above
bankfull bankfull

Conveyance K
(m=1.0)

wave speed c
(m=1.4)
dQ 1
c= = mCr Arm −1S 2
dAr Conveyance

Wavespeed

Kb

K=CrAm

Ab
Flow area Ar 9-23
 Channel Routing: Numerical Solution
Time t
Ar = αQ
1
Rearrange discharge-area function to give m
where

( )
− 1m
α = Cr S
1
2 in out
Qt+∆ t Qt + ∆ t
t+∆t
Substituting for Ar in continuity equation yields wt

∆t
∂Q ∂Q m
1

+α = Bs Nucleus wx
∂x ∂t
in out
Smith's (1980) finite difference scheme is adopted. Qt Qt
t

Weighted space and time derivatives are computed for the nucleus. L or ∆x

The space derivative is approximated by Inlet Outlet Distance x

∂Q 1 ⎡
=
∂x ∆x ⎣ ( )
wt Qtout − Qtin + (1 − wt ) Qtout in
( ⎤
+∆t − Qt +∆t ⎦ )
with wt being the time weight, 0 ≤ wt ≤ 1, and ∆x equals L.
Length L Outlet
The time derivative is approximated by Inlet
Mainstream
channel
( ) ( )
1
∂Q m 1 ⎡
wx Qtin+∆t m − Qtin m + (1 − wx ) Qtout − Qtout m ⎤
1 1 1 1
= m

∆t ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
+∆
∂t
t

with wx being the space weight, 0 ≤ wx ≤ 1.

9-24
 Channel Routing: Numerical Solution
Rearrange continuity equation with known terms on RHS Time t

α
in out
1 Q t+ ∆ t Qt+∆ t
(1 − wx ) Qtout+ ∆t (1 − wt ) Qtout+ ∆t
1
m
+ t+∆t
∆t ∆x wt

α
( )
∆t
= ⎡(1 − wx ) Qtout − wx Qtin+ ∆t − Qtin ⎤+
1 1 1
m m m
wx
⎢ ⎦⎥
Nucleus
∆t ⎣ in out
Qt Qt
1 ⎡
( ) ( )
⎤ + B ⎡ wt st + (1 − wt ) st + ∆t ⎤
t

⎣ 1 − w Q in
+ ∆ − w Q out
− Q in
⎦ ⎣ ⎦
∆x
t t t t t t L or ∆x

Inlet Outlet Distance x

Solve using a root finding procedure such Newton-Raphson

There are restrictions on the choice of ∆t and ∆ x.

The speed at which the finite difference scheme moves through time,
namely ∆ x/ ∆ t, must be comparable to the speed of the kinematic wave
c.

If these restrictions are violated solution may become unstable yielding

wildly incorrect results.
9-25
 Channel Routing: Stability
To gain insight into these restrictions consider case when m = 1 which yields the explicit solution.

⎛ wx wt ⎞ in ⎛ 1 − wx wt ⎞ out ⎛ 1 − wt w ⎞
⎜α + ⎟ Qt + ⎜ α − ⎟ Qt + ⎜ − α x ⎟ Qtin+ ∆t + B ( wt st + (1 − wt ) st + ∆t )
∆t ∆x ⎠ ∆t ∆x ⎠ ⎝ ∆x ∆t ⎠
Qtout =⎝ ⎝
+ ∆t
1 − wx 1 − wt
α +
∆t ∆x Time t
B
= c1Qtin + c2Qtout + c3Qtin+ ∆t + ( w s + (1 − wt )st + ∆t )
1 − wx 1 − wt t t
α +
in out
Q t+ ∆ t Qt+∆ t
∆t ∆x t+∆t
wt
where the weights c1, c2, c3 sum to 1
∆t
⎛ wx wt ⎞ ⎛ 1 − wx wt ⎞ ⎛ 1 − wt w ⎞ wx
⎜α ⎜α −α x ⎟ Nucleus
+ ⎟ − ⎟ ⎜
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆t ⎠
c1 = ⎝ ⎠ c2 = ⎝ ⎠ c = ⎝
t x t x x in out
1 − wx 1 − wt 1 − wx 1 − wt 3
1 − wx 1 − wt Qt Qt
α + α + α + t
∆t ∆x , ∆t ∆x , ∆t ∆x
L or ∆x

Solutions will only be stable if weights c1, c2 and c3 do not exceed 1. Inlet Outlet Distance x

Given that c1 + c2 + c3 = 1 and c1 > 0, stability (that is, c2<1 and c3<1) is assured if c2 > 0, c3 > 0.

1
For m equal to 1, α = where c is the celerity or wave speed. Therefore, it follows that sufficient conditions for stability are
c

wx 1 − wx
≤ Cou ≤
1 − wt wt

∆t
where Cou is the dimensionless Courant number defined as Cou = c
∆x

The Courant number can be considered as the ratio of the kinematic wave speed and the speed of the finite difference scheme.

Numerical experiments show that setting wx = 0.5 and wt = 0.3 consistently produces acceptable truncation errors while still providing a
good stability range for the Courant number. These weights are used by kinDog. 9-26
 Channel Routing: Example
Element 1
Hillslope subjected to 15-minute, 150 mm/hr burst with
∆x = 200m

B=200m
the following parameters:

γ = 1, Cs = 1 s/m, B = 200 m, φ = 2.5 mm/hr, IL = 10 mm

Element 2

∆x = 200m

B=200m

outlet

Consider two identical catchment elements. Each has a width B of 200m, a stream length ∆x of
200m, a slope of 1%, a conveyance constant Cr of 6 m/s and a conveyance exponent m of 1.

Using the KinDog weights and a ∆t of 5 mins yields the following routing equation:

+ ∆t = 0.681Qt + 0.204Qt
Qtout + 0.115Qtin+ ∆t + 0.00265st + 0.00619st + ∆t
in out

where Qt , Qt , Qt +∆t and Qt +∆t are in m3/s, and st and st + ∆t are in mm/hr.
in out in out

in out in
Because all the multipliers for Qt , Qt and Qt +∆t lie between 0 and 1, the Courant stability
conditions are satisfied. 9-27
 Channel Routing: Example (2)
Time t

Element 1
in
Q t+ ∆ t
out
Qt+∆ t Boundary conditions:
∆x = 200m
t+∆t
B=200m Inflow to element 1 = 0
wt
for all time
∆t
Nucleus wx

in
Element 2
Qt out
Qt Initial conditions: At time t
t
∆x = 200m

B=200m
L or ∆x
= 0, flow = 0 everywhere
Inlet Outlet Distance x
outlet

+ ∆t = 0.681Qt + 0.204Qt
Qtout + 0.115Qtin+ ∆t + 0.00265st + 0.00619st + ∆t
in out

Element 1 Element 2
Time Inflow Outflow Inflow Outflow 2.500

(min) s (mm/hr (m^3/s) (m^3/s) (m^3/s) (m^3/s) Element 1

2.000 Element 2
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Outflow, m^3/s
5.000 19.248 0.000 0.119 0.119 0.133 1.500

10.000 119.307 0.000 0.814 0.814 0.992

1.000
15.000 141.448 0.000 1.359 1.359 2.106
20.000 35.327 0.000 0.871 0.871 2.049 0.500

25.000 6.140 0.000 0.309 0.309 1.178 0.000

30.000 0.424 0.000 0.082 0.082 0.479 0.000 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000
Time, min
35.000 0.409 0.000 0.020 0.020 0.159
40.000 0.394 0.000 0.008 0.008 0.051 9-28