FUNDAMENTAL HYDROLOGY

Before rainwater can flow In i a stream or cbannel, as descnbed

. 10 . Chapter 7, or a
culvert, as described in Chapter 9, it must first descend from the sky, make its way
across the surface of the land, and accumulate into a concentratedform.
In this chapter, we will see how to calculate the quantity of flow,Q, that results
from the rainfall and must be conveyed by the hydraulic structure to be designed.
The value of Q resulting fromrainfallis calledrunoff anddependson severalfactors,
including the amount of rainfall, the size of the area on whichthe rainfall lands, and
the nature of the ground over which the rainwater flows.Each of these factors will
be discussed in detail in the sections that follow.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• Describe the hydrologic cycle .

• Dejineate a drainage basin on a LOpograp.hicmap .
• Calculate time of concentration for a dramag~baslD.
• Estimate storm frequency for a given rai~fall intensity
• Calculate a runoff hydrograph using a unit hydrograph

10.1 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

d water is a prime example. The water that flows in
Nature is a great recycler, an d is returned again in a constant cycle called the
streams comes fro m the ocean anI I . its functioning the hydrologiCcyc
. Ie can be
. e Although comp ex in i '
hydrologicc~cld'as the following steps:
simply explrune f the oceans and lakes of the earth.
I. Water evaporates ;~~vapor forms into cl~uds. .
2. The evaporated W h the atmosphereUl.globalweather patterns.
3. The clouds move throug .

·It
162 IN1ROllllellllN 10 IWllRAllIlCS ANIlIlVOROI nGV WI TIl APPliCATIONS rOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

'I. The water vapor condenses and precipitates in the Conn ~f rain
hai I. , snov,o
5. The ruin lands on the.ground and flows oV,erland to the streams. '1)1
6. The streams now to nvers and eventually into the Oceans and 1,,1.
%.es
A schematic diagram of the hy.drologic cy.cle is shown in ~igure lO~1. '
One aspect of stream flow IS not explained by the overslmplified desc' .
the hydrologic cycle: the constancy of the flow we observe in aVe llPtlonor
streams. You might think that streams would flow, only When it rains b rs and large
contradicts this notion. , Ut exp eO.eQCt
fact, streams and ~vers ar~ fed by rainfall in three ways. Figure 10.
I~l
a typical stream cross section and illustrate~ ~hat ha?pens to rainwater whe 2.Shows
on ground ncar the stream. Some of the nUl1IS lost Immediately to eVa n.Itlan~
evapotranspiration (the loss of water vapor from plants to the atrnos p~ratjon and
flows by gravity over the surface of the ground and eventually into th~ ere), some
the remainder infiltrates into the ground. Of the infiltrated water s stream,and
, Ome Hows in

_= -t>

Ocean/lakes

FIGURE 10-1
Schematic diagram of the hYdrOlo . I
glc cyc e,

Stream
FIGURE10-2 Channel
Typical stream cross section shOwing th. '
res Ways I hi h treaJ1l.
n w IC storrnwater reaches the 5
 CHAPTER 10 rUNOAMENrAl HYOROlOGY 163

underground or subsurface flow by gravity to the stream, and some percolates to the
slor~d underground water body called groundwater. Although the overland flow is
relatively quick, reaching the stream in minutes or, at most, hours, the subsurface
~~': and groundwater flow are much slower, lasting many days. Therefore, after an
initial quick surge of overland flow when it rains, streams receive a constant feed
of subsurface water throughout the days between rainfalls.
The constant low-level flow in streams due to the subsurface feed is called base
flow, and the quick surge due to overland flow is called direct runoff. It is direct
n~noff that we are concerned with in the design of hydraulic structures because
direct runoff represents the greatest volume of water that the structure must handle.
1n relatively small streams, following aoy normal raw_[all ev~ direct runoff
peaks and begins to diminish before subsurface an~tg(oundwatef flows have a
cfiance to make a significant contribution to the stream. Therefore, the flow rate that
we call runoff will be assumed to consist entirely of direct runoff.

10.2 DRAINAGE AREA

In calculating the rate of runoff in a stream resulting from a rainfall event, we must
first determine the size of the area over which the rain falls. For every stream, a weU-
defined area of land intercepts the rainfall and transports it to the stream. The area
of land is called the catchment area, watershed, or drainage basin. These three
terms generally are used interchangeably. Figure 10-3 shows a typical drainage
basin for a stream. All rainwater that lands within the drainage basin makes its way
to the stream, while all rain landing outside the drainage basin makes its way away
from the stream' and into some other stream.
The imaginary lirie that outlines the boundary of the drainage basin is called the
basin divide and is determined by the topography of the land. Delineating the basin
divide is done on a contour map of the land surrounding the stream and is the first
step in computing runoff.
Figure 10-4 shows a simplified contour map with a drainage area delineated
upon it. The first step in delineating the drainage basin is deciding the point on the
stream where the basin starts. The starting point is called the point of analysis (also
called the point of concentration) and can be anywhere along the stream. Nor-
mally, the point of analysis is chosen at the location of a proposed hydraulic struc-
ture, s~ch as a culvert.
The basin divide in Figure 10-5 illustrates the major principles in delineating a
drainage basin:

1. Draw the divide perpendicular to contour lines (when the contour lines
represent a slope).
2. Draw the divide along a ridge and across a saddle.
3. Never draw the divide along or across a swule.
4. Draw the divide between and parallel to two contour lines of the same
elevation.
5. When in doubt about your line, test it by imagining a drop of rain landing
near tbe line; then trace the runoff path taken by the drop. If the drop flows
toward the point of analysis, it landed inside the basin. (When water runs
downhill, it travels perpendicular to U1e contour Jines.)

."
164 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND HYD ROLOGY_ WITH APPLICATIONS FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

\---- ....

~ Not to scale

~
/
/ Divide

FIGUREand
divide Plan the
10-3toward view of typical drainage
stream. basin. Overland flow is directed by gravity awat from. the

The Principallandfeaturesin basin delineationare shown in FigUre 10-6.A swale

is chamcterized by bent Contourlines that point uphill; a ridge is the oPposite: the
COntourlines point downhill.A saddle is the transition between two ridges and two
swales,

After you have delineated the drainage basin, your next step is to measure the
area of the basin. The units normally are acres in the English system and 'quare
meters in the SI system. The area measurement is of the horizontal. plane contained
within the delineation, not the actual surfacs of the ground.
Measure the area using one oftlliee methods: (I) planimeter. (2) approximate
geometric shapes, or (3) computer software. When USing a planimeter, always
measure the area three times, and then compute an average. Figure 10-7 shows
a typical drainage area computed by both planimeter and geometric shapes.
 CHAPTER 10 165

---c
250

--7
I
I 270
I

260
250
I
I

, Drainage
\
\

,
I
basin \
\
.\ 240
I
/
/
260 /
/
/
/ 230

220

.....
.....
.....
point of analysis

RGURE10-4 Delineation of drainage basin on a contour map·

. e either triangles. as shOwnin FigUl~ 10-7• or gtid squares
GeoIDetnC sbapes can b. b sin. If the area is within 5 percent of the actual
superi.ll1POsed over the dratIlagde a This is because delineating a drainage area
area . accura t e enougb for eSlg
. 1S
It . D. the actuaJ area can never be knOWl) .
With
, roxlrnatlOO;
is froID the outset an apP .
absolute precision.

'.
 166 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY WITH APPLICATIONS FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

Raindrop here flows

away from point of SWaie
analysis -------,

250
Ridge--
Raindrop here flows
toward the point of
analysis _/-,'- --,~-=---..: ..
270
Saddle

260

\ ~I 250
Perpendicular I
\ \
\ \
Saddle \ \
\ \
\

Ridge

- -- Point of
analysis

Perpendicular
FIGURE 10-5 p" ,
nnclplesused i .
n delineating ad'
ralnage basin.
 CII \pr R 10 ru ~ AM JlA Ilf 1111

Contours pomt uphill

I

Swale
----- ------

Ridge
------
._.---

Contours "point" downhill

~& O;C)
<0 $>
<0 VJC)
<I)

~A
J

X535
At Saddle

~
(:)(,::P

(:)1>.0
~
<0
&~
B

535

Section B-B
Section A-A
FIGURE10-6 Contour lines forming a swale, a ridge, and a saddle.
 TH APPU(;AIIU'h>'
liD HYDROLDGY W I
W"

INTRDDUCTIDN TO HYDRAULICS A"

-------- .. ~ -- ,.. ... ---_

....
,.
,.-
"I'
(
r
,,; @
, .. .. /'" "
(

®
,,
Scale: 1":::2000'
" ... ...

Measure by triangles: ~ .. -.___.~------.~:::-'

I
1. 3,360,000 s.f.
2. 9,950,000 s.f
3.10,198,750s.t.
4. 19,775,000 s.f.
5. 8,125,000 s.f.
6. 10,115,000 s.f.
TOTAL 61,523,750 s.t.

61',523,750 = 1412 acres

43,560

Measure by planimeter:
1. 1,423 acres}
2. 1,419 acres 1,423 acres (average)
3. 1,429 acres

FIGURE 10-7
I
Computation of a typical drainage area.

10.3 TIME OF CONCENTRATION

When the size of the drainage basin has been determined, the next step in findin~
Q is to compute the time of concentration, tc: the amount of time needed for11IlI~
to flow fr.omthe most hydraulically remote point in the drainage basin to the po~;
of analysis, The path or route taken by the most remote drop is called the hydrauli
path and is illustrated in Figure 10-8. '
 ,----------------------------------- ~CH~A~PT~ER~J~O~FU~ND~A~ME~U~M~Lf~IY~OR~Ol~OGY
169

Basin divide

\
Point of
analysis

C Remotest point

fIGURE 10-8 Hydraulic path for a typical drainage basin. Initially,runoff travels as overland flow
(segmentA), then as shallow concentrated flow (segment 8), and finally as stream flow (segment C).

The hydraulic path might not cover the greatest distance, but it takes the great-
est time compared to the routes of all other drops in the drainage basin. The Limeis
determined by adding all the individual flow limes [or the different types of flow as
the drop makes its way toward the point of analysis. Therefore,

where fl, ... ,1" represent the travel Limesfor overland flow, shaJlow concentrated
flow, stream flow, and any other type of Row encountered.
Overland flow is usually the first type of flow as the drop starts from the
remotest point. It is characterized by sheet flow down a relatively' featureless slope
similar to the manner in which water flows across pavement. This is the slowest of
all types of flow and is computed by either a nomograph (see Example 10-1) or
empirical formula. Typically, overland flow cannot travel more than lOO feet before
consolidating into a more concentrated flow.
Shallow concentrated flow occurs when the natural indentations of terrain
cause the runoff to form into small rivulets. Since the rivulets are more concentrated,
the flow efficiency is increased, and therefore the velocity is also increased. Time
for shallow concentrated flow is determined by empirical nomograph, such as that
shown in Figure 10-9. (See Example 10-1.)
Stream flow is usually the last (and the fastest) flow to occur along the hy-
draulic path. Time for stream flow can be computed by using Manning's equation.
(Sec Example 10-1.)

.'"
 RMWATER MANAGEMENT
170 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND _IlYDRDlOGY WITH A PPLICATIONS FOR STO

.50-~ ~.J.
r:=-t- ~
EI~ b=rn :

.20 - LW-t-t--t-nl I I
r T I I I
r-l I I
1 I I I II I

I
I I I
I I _I r

I I
.01 -~~~~~~4+~II~I~I~r~r~~r~H+~~~~
I [[ J r I
I V I I I J r
" I r J
I I
2
I
I r
I I 1111 I I _i
J
4 I I I I I
I
6 10
AVerage ve1oc;ty, ft/sec 20
FIGURE 10-9 Averagevelocities for estimatingtraveltime
of Soil Conservation Service, Technical Release 55.) for shallow concentrated flow. (Courtesl
 CHAPTER 10 FUNDAMENTAL IIYORDLDGY 171

Problem
Del~rmine the time of concentration for the drainage basin shown in Figure 10-8
havlI1g the following conditions:

A. Overland flow: 100' @ 2.5%, average cover

B. Shallow concentrated now: 600' @ 4.0%
C. Stream Row: 4700' @ 0.3%, average cross section as shown:

1<1«(---15'---"

-\ .
fir--
1: n = 0.040

~8'-"
Solution
A. Overland f}ow.,By using the nomograph in Appendix C-2, overland flow lime
is found to be 19 minutes. Therefore, il = 12 minutes.
B. Shallow concentrated flow-Using the graph in' Figure 10-9 for unpaved
surface, velocity = 3.2 It/s.

d 600
l2 =-=-
V 3.2
=187.5s=3.1 min
C. Stream flow-Since our ultimate goal in finding tc is to find Q for flood condi-
tions, assume that the stream is filled up to its lop of bank. (This assumption is
made valid by the fact that as water level rises onto. the overbanks, channel
velocity does not appreciably increase.)

a = 34.5 ft2
p =17.2 ft
R = 2.01 ft
v = 1.49 R2/3 SO 112

= 1.49 (2.01)213 (O.OOW12

0.040
= 3.25 ft/s
Therefore,
d 4700
t3 = -; = 3.25
= 1.446s=24.1 min

'Ir
72 ~IN~TR~OD~UC~TI~ON~T~O H~YD~R~AU~LI~CS~A~NO~H~YO::RO~L~OG:..:_Y:..:WI::..:.TH~A::....:.PP...::LI.::.CA:.:..:.TI.=..:.ON:..=...S
.:._:FOR_ST_OR_M_W_AT_ER_M_A_NA_G E_M_EN_T _

Finally, t, is found as the sum of the three individual flow times:

tc = tl + t: + t3
i.> 12+3.1 +24.1
tc = 39 min (Answer)

It is important to remember that not all drainage basins have the same three
types of flow along the hydraulic path. For instance, we will see later that Some
basins have no stream but may have pavement, pipes, or drainage ditches.
Also, in Example 10-1, the implicit assumption was made that all three grades
used were uniform. Although such an assumption usually can be made, conditions
in the field rarely are so simple. If, for instance, the stream grade was steep fora
portion of its length and flatter for the remainder, two separate tunes might haveto
be computed to determine total flow time in the stream. This concept also applies
to all other flow types.

10.4 RAI N FAll

Rainfall occurs in haphazard patterns, making it very difficult to quantify for design
purposes. However, over the past hundred years, reams of data have been compiled
on rainfall in the United States. A statistical analysis of thisinformation leads tothe
determination of an average or typical rainfall.
The result of the statistical analysis is a series of synthetic or theoretical storms
categorized by total inches of rainfall and the time it takes for the rain to fall. These
categories of storms have been determined for each area of the country. The U.S.
Weather Bureau published Rainfall Frequency Atlas of the United States (Technical
Paper 40), which shows, through a series of maps, the expected size of storms
throughout the country. The report covers rainfall durations of 30 minutes to
24 hours and return periods from 1 to 100 years. Later, it was realized that the study
did not show enough detail in the mountainous regions west of 103°W longitude.
So a follow-up study was prepared by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration (NOAA) to depict more detailed precipitation data for the eleven wes~-
em states of the continental United States. The study, called NOAA Atlas 2, IS
bound in eleven volumes, one for each state, each containing a series of maps de-
picting the precipitation data. However, both TP40 and Atlas 2 have been su-
perceded by NOM Atlas J 4, which is available in electronic form only. NOAA
Atlas 14 can be accessed at http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov. A selection of these maps for
eastern and western states is reproduced in Appendix D-3 for use in determining
rainfall at various locations in the continental United States.
The size of a storm is described by the nwnber of inches of rainfall togetherwith
the duration of the rainfall. Thus, a rainfall event of 5.0 inches over 12 hours is iJ1
one category, and a rainfall of 5.0 inches over 24 hours is in another. Although both
events produced the same rainfall. one is more intense, and intensity of rainfall is
very important in computing runoff.

Rainfall Frequency
Probability of occurrence is described by the term return period, which is the
average number of years between two rainfall events that equal or exceed a giVeD
________ ------------------------------- __ ~1~7~3
~C~HA~P~TE~R~10~FU~N~DA~M~EN~Th~lH~YD~R~DL~O~GY

number of inches ov .
24 hours
ours ill er a given
i western Texa h dural"10n. F or example, a rainfall of 5.0 inches in
.10 12 h Ours has a return s as . a return
. p eno
. d 0[10 years, and. a rainfall of 5.0 inches
.
more mtense and therefor- « peflod of25 yea' IS.
Thius is
. because the latter storm is much
lore rarer
. In describing the 5-inch 24~ .'
IS a 10-year frequen ,hollr storm III western Texas, one would say tbat it
be that it has a 10 y cy storm, or simply a 10-year storm. Another description would
of time one waul-dear return period. This means that on average over a long period
10 years., expect a storm of thiss iintensity . or weater to OCCW' only once in

However, it is import antat caution. against

. . incorrect interpretations of storm
frequency. F or example ' it d oes not mean that If. a lO-year frequency storm occurs
to d day that there would be no more such storms for 10 years. Storm intensity
. .' IS a
ran om phenomenon. A 10-year storm could occur in one location in successive
years as long.as the long-time average is one every 10
years. . .
Another incorrect interpretation of storm frequency involves geography. The
western Texas example storm may bave covered two or three counties. If another
lO-year st01111occurs the following year several counties away from the first storm,
that storm is independent of the first and should not be counted in its frequency
pattern. Storm frequency evaluation is different for each location in the United
States.
Another incorrect interpretation of storm frequency involves storm duration. In
the western Texas example, if a 5-incll, 24-hour storm (lO-year frequency) occurs
one year and a 3-inch, 12-hour'storm (also lO-year frequency) occurs the next
year, the second storm, despite being labeled a 10-year storm, is independent of the
first and should not be counted in its frequency pattern.
The statistical analysis used to determine storm frequency is based in part on a
graph of historic data similar to that in Figure 10-10. The actu.al analysis is more
complex than that presented here, but a simplified description will suffice to convey

10--------------------------------------~
9-
8- ________ - - 6.5"

.!;
7-
6-
---- --- ---- _______ - - 5.0"
-
Cct1 5- ----- ~------
---- - - - - - - .- - 4.0"
~ 4-1-- ~---I-----
3-
2-

0=-oLlj_111'0j_j_d'OLlJliTo1-JL~~01l~~~OJJ~~~oL-~io~--8~~~~9~0~
Years
. f II amounts in 1 00years of records for a given
highest 24-hour rain a .
FIGURE10-10 Bar grap h 0f
location.
 f uency If you examine Figure 10-10
the fundamental concept of storm rcq d .. tion reached the 6 5-inch' Y10U \ViII
f 24-hour ura . eVel .
see that only one storm? a h t .m is said to be a 100-year stonn In
. f d S 6 5-111Ch,24- our s 01 .' A18
I 00 year s a ala. a a . led or exceeded 5 0 mches S 0,
you will sec that in 100 years, two storms equa What is a 25-~ear sto' o.as.O.
inch, 24-hour storm is called a 50-year storm. rrn In this
c 'ample? . . h h
.th . F' 10-10 the data are compiled in sue a way t at some yea
N ole at In igure , . I d d Till ts
are not represented, since only the most severe storms are me u e. s ~pe of data
arrangement is called the partial-duration series. Other anal~ses co~plle the data
differently. For example, the annual series uses the greatest SIngle rainfall of each
year. This series includes more storms .but may exclude an extreme event if two
major storms occur in one year. Analysis that was used to prepare NOAA AtLas 14
used a combination of data series.
If 200 years of data are kept in the example of Figure 10-10, it might turn
out that an 8-inch, 24-hour storm occurs. In this case, the number of inches of a
100-year storm would probably be adjusted by statistical analysis to b~ between
6.5 inches and 8.0 inches.
After compiling rainfall data for a number of years, meteorologists have
also been able to establish average patterns of rainfall within a typical storm. Fig.
ure 10-11(a) shows a typical pattern of intensity throughout a 24-hour storm. Our
cornmon experience reveals that rainfall intensity fluctuates throughout each storm
and that each storm is different. However, a long-term average produces a single
pattern, as illustrated in Figure 10-11(b).
You might imagine that for a given location in the United States, a seriesof
such patterns could be drawn, one for each rainfall amount-that is, f-inch
24-hour; 2-inch, 24-hour; and so on. For each graph thus drawn, the area underthe
curve would represent the total inches of rainfall for that storm.
Analysis of intensity and duration for an average storm pattern reveals thatthe
storm has one very intense period near the halfway point and less intense periodsbe-
fore and after. If you study Figure 10-11 (b), you will see that you could arbitrarily
select a period (or duration) of 3 hours in the most intense portion of the sto11l1
d~ri?g w~ch 2.7 inches fall. The intensity during this period is 0.90 inchlhour.
Sl~arly, if you look at the most intense 2 hours of the storm, you would findthat
2.5 m~hes fall, giving an intensity of 1.25 inchesfhour. Finally, if you look at the
most intense 1 hour of the storm, you would find that 2.0 inches fall giving an
intensity of 2.0 inches/hour. . ,
. These e~amples suggest a principle: For smaller durations of time in the most
intense portion of a storm, the rainfall intensity increases.
~e relation~hip.between rainfall intensity and duration for various return periodS
for a given location m the United States is shown on intensity-duration-frequency
(I-D-F) curves developed by various governmental agencies based on data froIll
Weather Bureau records. Selected examples of I D F ~ . s locations
. h . - - curves lor vanou
In t e Umted S~tes are reproduced in Appendix C-3 for use in solving runoffprob-
lerns by the Rational Method.
min!he intensitY-durati~n r~lationship is central to the Rational Method for deter~
that y~UP~~y~~~~ fuwhi11
ch ISdPthresentedin Chapter 11. Therefore, it is irnportaO
e y an oroughly.
 __ ~1~7~5
_______---------------------------------------~C~H~AP~TE~R~10~F~U~NO~A~M~EN~U~L~HY~O~RO~L~OG~Y

1Or-------------------------------
I
I
,-.. I
Ul
I
E
---s: 1\ Hourly rainfall pattern

--
.~
1\
1\
for a typical storm

~ Intensity pattern derived

'ecn II
I I from long-term average
2 of many individual rainfall
.~ I \
patterns
(Q \
c.itj \
a: \
\

. Time (hours) 24
(a) TYPical Intensity Pattern for One Individual Storm

10

........
~ Intensity pattern
.s
.:
)10
Intensity = 2.0 inih
for 1.0-h duration
--
.s::::.
c

->.
'iii
c
OJ
,.-

+-'
.~ ~ Inlensity= 1.25 in/h
-
(Q
c
'itj
a:
1\
"
r for 2.0-h duration
Intensity = 0.90 in/h
for 3.0-h duration
17 t-,

_.-/
V t----
o
o ~~~I_JJ Time (hours) 24

(b) Intensity Pattern Based Upon Long-Term Average

FIGURE 10-11 Rainfall intensity pattern for a 5.0-inch, 24-hour storm in New Jersey.

....
 ~~WA~T~ER~M~A~NA~G~EM~E~NT~ ------ __~
INTRODUCTION TOHYDRAULICS
ANDHYDROLOGY
WITII ~ATIONS rOR STORM

Example 10-2

Problem '. New Jet sey, I .33 inches of rain falls over a duration
" . 'ing III
In.I winfall event occun 'iod of this storm?
of 20 minutes. What is the return pen

Solulion f 1 33 . ches over aura

d n of
U· on oi 0v.33 hour represents. a rain.raU
A rainfall depth 0 '. 111 I D F es for New Jersey in Appendix C-3, enter
intensity of 4.0 in/h. Using the -. - curv d project a line upward. Then enter the
d . ti of 20 minutes an J .
the graph at a ura on. . .
graph at 4.0 inches, project a line act oss to the right , and locate tile mtersection of
the two lines.

The intersection falls on the curve representing the lO~year frequency stor:m. There-
fore, this rainfall event has an approximate return period of 10 years and IS referred
to as a 10-year storm. (Answer)

10.5 RUNOFF HYDROGRAPHS

Sometimes, it is useful to know the entire relationship between runoff and time for
a given rainfall event. This relationship, when graphed, is called a bydrograph and
is shown in general form in Figure 10-12.
A close inspection of Figure 10-12 reveals that, in general, the slope of the
rising portion of the hydro graph is steeper than the falling portion. This is cbarac-
teristic of all hydrographs. In streams that carry significant discharge before the
storm event, a distinction is made between the prior stream flow, called base flow,
and runoff from the storm, called direct runoff. Figure 10-13 shows the relationship
between base flow and direct runoff. The area above the base flow line constitutes
the direct runoff hydro graph. Generally, in projects involving small streams, base

Peak

.........
~
-
E
J(J!2
:t:;"
o
c
:J
0:

FIGURE 10-12 Typical hydrograph. Time, h

 r.IIArrrR 10 fIlNOAM[NTAL IIYOROLOGY 177

Hydrograph

,_--- Base flow

--- ---

Time, h

FIGURE 10-13 Typical hydrograph including base flow.

flow is negligible in comparison to direct runoff. In all our subsequent dIscussion

of hydro graphs, we will assume dlrect runoff hydrographs.
Runoff represented in the hydrograph consists of the water that bas fallen on
the drainage basin in the form of rainfall. However, not all ~f the rainfall becomes
nIDoff. Some of the rainfall is lost to the runoff process through infiltration, evap-
oration, surface ponding, and even evapotranspiration. The remainder of the rain-
fall (that which is not lost) is called rainfall excess and becomes runoff.
Generally, rainfall is lost in two processes: initial losses and iT)fillTation.In 'the
beginning of the rainfall event, the first rainfall to hit the ground is lost to PODding
and surface absorption. Thus, no runoff begins until the initial ponding and
absorption-that is, initial losses-are completed. Then, as runoff proceeds, some
of the water running over the ground is absorbed andin[JJlrates into the ground.
This infiltration process continues throughout the rainfall event. However, the in-
filtration rate deereases in the later hours of the rainfall because as the ground be-
comes more saturated, less infillration can take place. Figure 10-14 shows a Iypical
rainfall pattern with the relationship between rainfall losses and rainfall exceSS
Although all runoff hydrographs have the same genera! shape, they differ in
details depending on several factors, including the following:

1. Amount of rainfall
2. Rainfall pattern
3. Time of concentration . .
4. Physical characteristics of the draInage basin
ak could be located at various posilions along the time axis, or the
ThuS, ldt he pe f various magnitudes, or the slope a j the
t re r: ' or f aII'109 li mb s
nsmg
peak cou b eo'
COUld be steep h or moderate.
rnethods have been developed to calculate hydrographs for"
Alth~ug mban~ and storm they fall into two general categories:
given dralllage aSlll' "
1. Direct measurement hydrograph
2. synthetic hydrOgraph
 GY WlTll APPliCAIIUI1.l , un -

178 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND!YOROlO ---

Rainfall excess

8 10 12 24
o 2 4 6
Time, h

FIGURE 10-14 Relationship between rainfall losses and rainfall excess.

Direct measurement is used for large river basins in which one or more mes-
suring stations are used to record actual hydro graphs for every major storm over a
number of years. These data, together with related rainfall data, are analyzedsta·
tistically to develop a generalized hydrograph that can be applied to any anticipated
rainfall in the future. Synthetic hydro graphs are used for small drainage basins
where no measured runoff data are available. In these cases, a method mustbe
devised to reasonably predict the hydrograph resulting from a given rainfall event
without ever having experienced actual runoff at the site. Hydrograph calculations
discussed in Chapter 11 are limited to synthetic hydrographs.

Unit Hydrograph
Both synthetic hydrographs and direct measurement hydrographs are constrUcted
bYthe use of a ~oncept called the unit hydrograph. Introduced in '1932 by L.K
Sherman,
.f the unit hydrog rap h IS
i d e fi ned as a hydro graph resulting from oneunitof
ram all excess falling over th d . h nitof
rainfall '" e ram age basin in one unit of time. T e U SI
system eFxoces~ IS II.l~ch in the English system of units and 1 millimeter in the he
. r simp icity w ill li . to t
English system. The udit e ~l . mut ,our discussion of unit hydrograp~S {the
time of concentr ti ~r time IS vanable but is usually taken as a fracUon 0
. . a lon, typically one-fifth. .
. The principal elements of a . h . J.ospe~'
uon of Figure 10 15 1 unit ydrograph are shown in Figure 10-15. eS"
First,note that rai~fall:~v~a s ~e~e~al factors related to the rainfall-runoff pr~o~'
venience.Runoff is plottpdo~te m.fiches at the top of the graph and inve11edfor~i)
The exact shape oreth m cfs/in, and the two plottings share the same tiJll:~i~~'
lar dramage
. basin b . e graph
. d epen d s on the characteristics of thC pLU'd ~
emg conSidered . S 0 &lor each drainage basin enco uotete '
 CHAPTER 10 FUNDAMENTAL IIYDROLOGY 179

~r---~---------- ~T~lm~o~~~
__~

~t.r:
c:
.~
Rainfall excess, 1 inch

Point of inflection

t
:t
Unit hydrograph
o
c:
::l
ex:

Time-)lo-
FIGURE10-15 Principal elements of a unit hydrograph.

different unit hydrograph exists. But all unit hydrograpbs have one attribute in
cOl~on: that the area under the curve represents the total runoff volume, which in
turn IS equal to 1 inch multiplied by the area of the drainage basin.
Various methods for constructing the unit hydrograph have been published
over the years. Factors used in the construction include time of concentration, t.,
and basin lag, L. Lag is related empirically to timeof concentration by

L = 0.6tc
Figure 10-16 shows how these parameters relate to the shape of the 'unit
hydrograph. But other characteristics of the drainage basin are also used to refine
the shape. Some of the important methodologies bear the names of their authors
and include the Clark Method, the Snyder Method, and the NRCS Dimensionless
Unit J-Iydrograph. The last is named for the Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
vice (NRCS), an agency of the U.S. Department of Agricult-ure and the successor
to the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) ..
Assumptions made in the use of unit hydrographs include the following:

J. Rainfall is constant tlu'oughout the unit time. Although rainfall intensity

varies constantly with time, we can assume constant rainfall for a short pe-
riod of time without compromising the validity of the analysis. This sim-
plifies the analysis.. ..,
2. Rainfall is uniformly distributed over th~ drainage basI.n. ACLu.al.ralllfall
.: s over a drainage basin; but for relatively small basins, vanauons are
valle trerne and uniform distribution . can b e assume d lO ..simp l'I fy L1C
I com-
no t exu
ti If a drainage basin is....too large to assume unn orrn istn uuon 0 [
, ·c distributi
puta Ions.
rainfall, the basin should be divided into subbasins,

'_
 IUU

INIIWUULIIUN IU "''''''W"'~-,._-.,---,--.------------------

~ 1 inch
& _l Unit hydrograph for
combined rainfall

+~
-, First unit hydrograph

t
:e
1 time unit

o
c:
::J
a:

Time___..
fiGURE 10-16 Unit hydrograph constructed from multiple unit rainfalls.

3. Two or more unit hydrographs plotted on the same time axis can be
bined to form a resultant hydro graph that has ordinates equal to the sum
the ordinates of the plotted hyclrographs at each point on the time axis.
is the principal of superposition.

By using the superposition principle, a hydrograph can be constructed for rain.

fall events greater than the unit rainfall by dividing the rainfall excess into anum.
ber of components, each equal to the unit rainfall. Since each unit rainfall produces
a unit hydrograph, all the reSUlting hydrographs can be combined to create one reo
sultant hydrograph. For example, in Figure 10-16, two unit rainfalls occur one after
the other. Each unit rainfall produces a unit hydrograph of equal magnitude and
shape but separated by a time value equal to the unit time. The resultant hydrograpb
is constructed by plotting each of its ordinates as the sum of the ordinates of the two
unit hydrographs at each point along the time axis ..
In this way, once the unit hydro graph has been constructed for a given drainage
basin, a hydrograph can be developed for any rainfall pattern longer than the unit
time. Thus, if the generalized pattern of rain is known for a Particular drainage
basin, a unit hydro graph can be constructed for the drainage basin and for the rain-
fall pattern. Then a runoff hydrograph for that drainage basin can be computed 1M
any rainfall
unit amount by multiplying the number of inches of rainfall excess by the
hydrograph.

Example 10-3

Problem

The unit hYdrogrnphfor a 24-hour storm for a drainage basin is shown in tabuill
form III Table 10-1. Sketch the hydrogrnph for the basin reSUlting from a 6.o-indl
24-hour storm..Initial
area of the hasIn. rainfall losses for this storm equal 0 .5 inch . Also , estiuJall'iIl'
 GIIAI'If II 10 1UNOAIA£
rlTAI ItYDROtOny 181

-
TABLE 10-1
Tillll'
Unit IlydfO( I
Jf,lp I fnf I XtlllIplo t 0 ~I
()i~{·IHI,g(.
(It)
'l'IIIH' I)i..,(·I!II 1'1.(1'
(d....
/ill)
(It) «( ,.,/JII)
,
-
J
() ()H(l
O. Il)
I]
14
1.7
O.3H 1.'1
·1 15 12
.5 071
I() J()
2.3
6 17 0.84
7
5.5 J8 0.(,9
6.4
8 19 0.54
5.8
9 20 0.45
4.4
10 21 0.36
3.2 22
1L 0.25
2.5 23
12 0.19
2.1 24 0.15

Solution
The unit hydro graph is shown in graphical form in Figure 10-17. Because it is a
unit hydrograph, it results [rom a rainfall excess of J inch. Rainfall excess [or the
storm in question is 6.0 inches minus 0.5 inch, or 5.5 inches. Therefore, the resul-
tant hydrograph will have ordinates equal to 5.5 times the ordinates of the unit
hydro graph. The resultant hydrograph is shown in Figure 10-17.
The area of the drainage basin can be estimated by recalling that the volume
of runoff is computed in two ways: (1) depth of rainfall excess multiplied by the
area and (2) area under the hydrograph.

40
40
en
U
Q)
Ol
.... Resultant hydrograph
30 ~
~o 30 (5.5-inch rainfall excess)' III
en s:
o
0 en
s: is
Q.
III
20 .g_
.... III
....
Ol
0
20 Ol
.... o
....
"C
>. Unit hydrograph "C
>-

--
I
C
III
:r:
10 'c
-
::J
'S 10
en
Q)
a:

0
0 5

~GURE pie 1 0-3.

10-17 Hydrographs for Exam
 MWATER MANAGEMENT
TIONS rOR STOR
WITII APPLICA
NO flYDROLOG Y
182 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAUliCS A
. h i 11 Figure 10-17 is J 98,000 cubic f
.'sullnnl llycirogr,IP cel.
An'n t1lllk'r I he 1(.;, . or
Men x Dept 11
Yt)) lI111l'

"fl.-II --
VolulllL'
Depth
198,OOO 432,000 s.I.
Area= --s.:s- ::=

-
12
Area= 9.92 acres (Answer)

10.6 ROUTING

When lUnoff f rom a reu ainfall event travels down a stream, it is . considered
.
wave even tl10Ugh the "crest" of such a wave would not'. be discernible to. casual
a flood --
. As the flood wave moves down the stream,. It decreases ill heightand
ob servelS.
spreads out in the direction of the stream. The reduction of the fi?Od waveheighl
or magnitudeis called attenuation, and the procedure for computmg the reduction
is called routing. (The term routing describes a mathematical procedure, not the
mappingof a course of movement.)
A stone thrown into a pond causes ripples to move across the surface. Each
ripple is a wave,and as it moves away from the center, it decreases in magnitude.
This is an attenuation process similar to a flood wave in a stream, except thatthe
stream exampleis one-dimensional in contrast to the two-dimensional ripple.
Tofurtherdescribe stream attenuation, consider the drainage basin tributaryto
the streamin Figure 10-18. If observers were placed at stations 1, 2, and 3 and were
a?le to measure the hydrograph resulting from the rurioff, they would recordvery
d~erent results. As the location becomes farther from the point of analysis,the
~elghtof the hydrograph (peak Q), drops, and the location of the peak shiftstothe
nght the ti .
on e tune aXIS.The entire hydro graph flattens and becomes longer, although
the total area under the curve remains constant. . .
~h~flatteningand elongating of the hydro graph demonstrate the classical char-
actenstlcs of attenuaf Th the
tota Iamount or volume IOn. e area under the curve remains constant because
f ff . . td
that th h d 0 runo IS not Increased or decreased. (It must be noe
e y rographs at Stat' 2 '. .' aI
runoff t . Ions and 3 111 FIgure 10-18 ignore any addItion
en enn? the stream along its length.)
ComputatIOnof the hydro h . . the
hydrograph at St t' 1 grap s at Stations 2 and 3 is performed by rouung rf
a IOn • The ro t'. runOll
enters a section of th u ing concept IS based on the fact that as il
stored in the reach an:
~tream, called a reach, some of the water is temporar Y
A similar process o!c:sr~:ased at .the downstream end. . e.
Waterenters one end of the b . ~etention basin except to a more dramatw de~d
at a reduced rate. Tbi asin, I~stored temporarily and then exits the other
FI s tYpeof routin . . '
cod routing for str . g IS descnbed in detail in Chapter 14. rn-
pIe.x. However, the U S Aeams IS diffiCUlt because the hydraulic process is cOt'or
estJmat' . . rmy Corps f E . dore
. tng a stream routing U 0 ngmeers has developed a proce au-
celVedfor the Muskingum Ri'. ca .ed the Muskingum Method. It was first C jll
general ver in Ohi aJIls
• 10 and then made universal for stre
 CIIAPT[R 10 rUNOAMFNTAlllYOROlOGY 183

Point of analysis

.. ....
,,
" ,,
\
/ Drainage \
/
/ basin I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,"
-----~-..,."
3

o
t
CD

t=-»

t
o
®

t=-:»

t
o 0)

t~

FIGURE
10-18 Attenuation of a flood wave.

Therefore, it is important ~orealize that a~ ru~off flows down a stream, its peak
discharge value does not remain constant but inevitably decreases. Actual computa-
tions by the Muskingurn Method are beyond the scope of this book. However,we will
see the effects of stream routing in Chapter 11and of reservoir routing in Chapter 14.

10.7 SUBBASINS
In computing a runoff hydrogra~h, if the delinea~e~drai~age basin is too large or
not sufficiently homogeneous, it must be subdivided into smaller units called
subareas or subbasins. We must remember that one of the underlying assumptions
!1~8~4__ ~IN~TR~O~DU~C~TlO~N~T~OH~Y~OR~A~Ul~IC~SA~N~O~HY~OR~O~lO~G~YW~I~TH~A~PP~LI~CA~TI~ON~S~FO~R~ST~O~RM~W~M~E~RM~A=NA=G~EM=E~NT
~

(a) Overall Drainage Basin

...
SUbba:~""7 "''',
divide ..... _

(b) Delineation of Two Subareas Within the

Overall Basin
FIGURE 10-19 Drainage basin divided into subbasins.

of hydrograpb construction is a drainage basin with relatively uniform characteris~

tics throughout. These characteristics include cover conditions, average slope,an
soil types. . hd
Figure IO-19(a) shows the outline of a drainage basin with a stream br~c ~
into two areas of differing characteristics. Figure IO-19(b) shows how the basJIlc.s
be subdivided into two subareas for computation purposes. The point of analyst
for the overall basin is at the confluence of the two branches of the stream· the
The hydrograph for the entire basin at the point of analysis is the sum ofdro-
hydrographs generated by each of the subareas. Each subarea produces a by
graph just as any single watershed does. .19.
To compute the total runoff hydrograph for the drainage basin in Figure lObS
compute the hydrographs for the two subareas and add them together. Hydrograp