GROUNDWATER

INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is that portion of the water, beneath the surface of the earth that can be
collected with wells, tunnels, or drainage galleries, or which flows naturally to the
earth‟s surface via seeps or springs.

This water is due to infiltrated part of the rainfall. The water may have infiltrated
directly into the ground where it landed or it may first have collected in streams and
lakes and then seeped into the ground. The water moves downwards under the
influence of gravity until it reaches the impervious strata. It then begins to move in a
lateral direction towards some outlet.

IMPORTANCE OF GROUND WATER

Because groundwater is relatively free of pollution it is especially useful for domestic
purposes, particularly for isolated farms and small towns in the arid regions. In such
places groundwater is often the only source of water for irrigation. There are about
400,000 tube-wells in Pakistan which pump about 66 billion cubic meters of
groundwater annually. In villages almost every household has a hand-pump to pump
groundwater for domestic use. About one - sixth of the total water used in the
country exclusive of hydroelectric- power generation comes from groundwater
pumped each day. Groundwater temperature remains relatively low during the
summer, and is also used for air conditioning and industrial cooling.

Aside from its great economic importance, groundwater is also an important phase of
the hydrologic cycle. Most perennial streams derive the greater part of their flow
from groundwater, while in arid regions, much of the surface stream flow percolates
to the groundwater. The occurrence and movement of sub-surface water are
necessarily intimately related to geological structures, and knowledge of Geology is a
pre-requisite to a thorough comprehension of groundwater hydrology.
Origin and Age of Groundwater

Precipitation is the main source of fresh groundwater. As stated earlier the water may
have infiltrated directly into the ground where it landed, or it may first have collected
in streams and lakes via surface runoff and then seeped into the ground. For the
countries like United States, it is estimated that about 25 percent of the precipitation
becomes groundwater.
The age of ground water may range from a few years or less to tens of thousand of
years or more. Assuming that 25 per cent of the rainfall infiltrated in countries like
United States becomes groundwater, the volume of groundwater within a depth of
800 m is equivalent to the recharge of a 160-years period, which indicates the order
of magnitude of the average groundwater age in the United States and other areas
with similar climatic and geologic conditions.

Aquifers

Groundwater bearing formations sufficiently permeable to transmit and yield water in

sizeable quantities are called aquifers. These are of two types:

a. Confined or Artesian Aquifer

It is a soil formation which can store and can transmit water under pressure. There is
no atmospheric pressure on the top surface of groundwater.
It is found between two impervious strata as shown in Fig. 7.1. Confined aquifers
are completely filled with ground water, and they do not have a free water table. The
pressure condition in a confined aquifer is characterized by the piezometric surface,
which is the surface obtained by connecting equilibrium water levels in tubes/wells
or piezometers, penetrating the confined aquifer as shown in Fig. 7.1 below.

Fig. 7.1
190
B. Unconfined Aquifer

It is soil formation which can store water and can transmit it in vertical as well as in
lateral direction. It is defined as that water bearing strata in which there is a free
surface of groundwater at the top having atmospheric pressure. This top surface
having atmospheric pressure is called the water table. Refer Fig. 7.2 below.

Fig. 7.2
Aquiclude

An aquiclude is a soil formation which can store water but cannot transmit it. Its
permeability is negligibly small.

Aquitard

A soil formation which is permeable in vertical direction and is impermeable in

lateral direction is called an aquitard.

Aquifuge

Soil formation which can neither store water nor can transmit it is called an aquifuge.
Its permeability is nearly zero.

191
Storage Coefficient and Specific Yield

The storage coefficient of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water yielded per
unit horizontal area and per unit drop of water-table in case of unconfined aquifers.
In case of confined aquifers it is volume of water yielded per unit horizontal area and
per unit drop of piezometric surface. For unconfined aquifers, the storage coefficient
can also be called specific yield, which is the volume of water released from a unit
volume of saturated aquifer material drained by water-table falling down by depth
equal to unity.

Darcy’s Law
Darcy‟s law states that the velocity flux „V‟ is directly proportional to hydraulic
gradient. ( Velocity flux is the discharge divided by total cross-sectional area of soil
formation perpendicular to flow ).

V α dh/dl

where „h‟ is the total hydraulic head (pressure head + elevation head) of water

V=k dh / dl - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.1)

The factor of proportionality „k‟ is a property of the soil or rock material, and it is
called the hydraulic conductivity. If piezometers are placed at two points on a
groundwater stream line (points 1 and 2 in figure 7.3 ). The velocity of the
groundwater in that stream can be calculated with the equation.

V = k ( Z1 + h1 - ( Z2 + h2 )) / L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.2)

Where,
V = Darcy velocity of water (length / time)
h1 = Pressure head at point 1 (length)
Z1 = Elevation head at point 1 (length)
h2 = elevation head at point 2 (length)
Z2 = elevation head at point 2 (length)
L = distance along flow between points 1 and 2 as measured along stream line
(length)

192
Equation (7.1) or modifications thereof are called Darcy‟s equation, after the French
Hydrologist Henry Darcy. The Darcy velocity is not the real macroscopic velocity of
water, but the discharge is divided by entire cross-sectional area normal to the flow,
(solids as well as pores) to get Darcy‟s velocity. The pressure head „h‟ at a given
point in the flow system is the height to which water will rise in a piezometer
inserted down to that point. The elevation head of a given point is the vertical
distance of that point above an arbitrary, horizontal reference plane. The sum of
pressure head and elevation head at a given point in the flow system is called the
total hydraulic head „H‟. Thus „h1 + Z1‟ in equation. (7.2) is the total head H1, at
point „1‟ and h2 + Z2 is the total hydraulic head H2 at point „2‟. The distance „L‟
between points 1 and 2 must be measured along the streamline on which the points
are located. The ratio ( H1-H2 ) / L is called the hydraulic gradient of the flow.

VALIDITY OF DARCY’S LAW:

Darcy‟s Law (Darcy‟s equation) is valid only for steady laminar flow. With this type
of flow, velocities are relatively small and water molecules travel in smooth paths,
more or less parallel to the solid boundaries of the pores (in capillary tubes with
uniform diameters, water molecules, move exactly parallel to the tube walls).
Laminar flow is governed by the viscous forces of the fluid, so that head losses vary
linearly with velocities, as in Darcy‟s equation.

If the velocities increase, a point is reached whereby the inertial forces increase
significantly and particles travel in irregular paths, forming eddies, swirls and other
turbulences as can be observed in rapidly flowing streams. In this type of flow, which
is called turbulent flow, head losses vary exponentially with the velocities of the fluid
and not as per Darcy‟s Law.

Groundwater movement occurs almost always as laminar flow. Turbulent flow may
develop where the pores and the hydraulic gradient are both large. This could happen
in the immediate vicinity of pumped walls or in very porous formations, particularly
near springs or seeps where the flow is concentrated.

193
 Fig. 7.3 Flow through Porous Media

Well Hydraulics for Steady State Pumping

I. Confined Aquifers

The flow system around a pumped or flowing well in a confined aquifer can be
analyzed with the Dupuit Forchheimer assumption of horizontal flow. At steady
state, the flow in the aquifer comes from far away, so that the flow across an
imaginary cylindrical surface in the aquifer at radius “r”, from the pumped well is the
same as the flow „Q‟ from the well. The well has its influence to a certain radial
distance after which the water levels remain unchanged. This radial distance is called
radius of influence.
In general the flow can be expressed as
Q = AV - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.3)

„A‟ is the cross-sectional area and „V‟ is the Darcy‟s velocity.

From Darcy‟s Law, we have, V = k dh/dl with usual notations and in case of pumped
well at steady state the flow is radial, so V= K dh / dr, where „h‟ is the hydraulic
head and „r‟ is the radius. „d‟ represents small value as delta.

194
Cone of depression due to steady state pumping in a confined aquifer is shown in
figure 7.4. In this figure „s‟ represents the drawdown at radial distance r, which is
drop of piezometric level due to pumping from its original level before pumping.

The area of cylindrical surface at radial distance „r‟ from the center of well.
A=2  rD

Now the flow can be represented as:

Q=2rD.k dh/dr (see figure 7.4)
Where,
Q = flow from well (volume/time)
k = hydraulic conductivity of aquifer
r = radial distance from well centre
D = thickness of aquifer
Dh / d = hydraulic gradient (slope of piezometric head „h‟ at distance „r‟
from pumped well).

Fig. 7.4 Cone of depression for steady state pumping in a confined aquifer

195
The piezometric head “h” is expressed with respect to the bottom of aquifer.
Rearranging above equation

Q dr / r = 2  k D dh

Integration both sides from radial distance r1 where the hydraulic head is h1 to r2
where the hydraulic head is h2.

Q (ln(r2/ r1) = 2K.D (h2 – h1) OR

Q = 2k.D (h2 – h1)/ {ln(r2/ r1)} ----------------------------------------- (7.4)

This equation is known as the Thiem equation, after the father son team of Adolph
and Gunter Thiem that developed this equation late in the nineteenth century.

UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Cone of depression due to steady state pumping in an unconfined aquifer is shown in

figure 7.5. In this figure „s‟ represents the drawdown at radial distance „r‟, which is
drop of water table level due to pumping from its original level before pumping.

In general the discharge can be expressed as

Q=AV
Where „A‟ is area of cross–section of flow and „V‟ is the mean velocity (Darcy
Velocity here)
From Darcy‟s Law,
V=k. dh / dl
and in case of pumped well where the flow is radial,
V = k dh / dr
Now for an unconfined aquifer, the area of cylindrical surface under consideration
(area perpendicular to flow) is
A = 2 rh (see Figure 7.5)
Q=2 rh.k. dh/dr

196
 Q.dr/r=2 kh. dh

Integration both sides from radial distance r1 where the hydraulic head is h1 to r2
where the hydraulic head is h2.

Q (ln(r2/ r1) = k. ((h2 ) 2- ((h1 ) 2)

= k ((h2 ) 2- ((h1 ) 2)/( (ln(r2/ r1)) -------------------------------------- (7.5)

Fig. 7.5: Cone of depression for steady state pumping in a unconfined aquifer

197
Example 7.1

A well with a radius of 0.5 m completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer with k=30
m/day and water table height from an impermeable strata at the bottom of aquifer
H=50 m. The well is pumped so that the water level in the well remains at 40 m
above the bottom of the aquifer assuming that pumping has no effect on water table
height at r=500 m.
What is steady state well discharge?

Solution

k=30 m/day
k=30/(24x60x60) m/sec = 0.0003472 m/sec
r1=0.5 m
h1= 40m.
r2=500 m
h2=H=50 m
Q= k[(h2)2-(h1) 2] / ln(r2/r1)
=3.1415 x 0.0003472 (502 - 402) / ln (500 / 0.5)
=0.142 m3/sec

Example 7.2:

A well is sunk through an unconfined aquifer and is pumped at a constant rate. The
draw-down in the observational wells are measured and the following data is
generated.
Static water depth = 15 m

Q = 0.015 m³/s
Dia of well = 1.2 m
Draw down at 7.5 m = 1.26 m
Draw down at 15.0 m = 0.84 m

198
Find out:
a. the coefficient of permeability, k
b. the diameter of circle of influence, and
c. the drawdown in the well.

Solution

(i) h1 = 15-0.84 = 14.16 m, r1 = 7.5m

h2 = 15-1.26 = 13.74 m r2 = 15m
Q =  k (h2 2 - h1 2 )/ln (r2/r1)
0.015 =  k [ (14.16)2 - (13.74)2 ]/ln(15/7.5)
k = 2.8 x 10 -4 m/sec

(ii) Q =  k ( H2 - h2 ) /ln (R/r)

0.015 =  x 2.8 x 10 -4 (152 – 13.742 )/ ln ( R/7.5)
R = 62.71 m
Dia. of circle of influence, 2R = 125.42 m

(iii) Q =  k (H2 - h2 ) /ln (R/r)

0.015 =  x 2.8x10 -4 (152 - h 2 )/ln (62.71/0.60)
h = 12.07 m
hence draw down
H-h = 15-12.07 = 2.93 m

Example 7.3

Observational wells were drilled in a cone of depression of artesian (confined) well,

being pumped at the rate of 0.028 m³/s. The drawdown in the observational wells at
4.57 m and 12 m were found to be 7.5 m and 3 m respectively. Calculate „K‟ of the
aquifer if the average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.
199
Solution

b = 30 m
Q = 0.028 m³/s
r1 = 4.57 m
r2 = 12 m
drawdown S1 = 7.5 m
drawdown S2 = 3.0 m
k = ?
h1 = H - S1
h2 = H - S2

We have the formula,

Q = 2KD ( h2 - h1 )/ ln ( r2/r1 )
Q = 2kb (H - S2 - H + S1 )
ln (r2/r1)
0.028 = 2 x 3.1415x k x 30 (7.50-3.0)/ ln (12/4.57)
k = ln (12/4.57) x 0.028 x / (2x 3.1415x30 x (7.50-3.0))
k = 3.20 x 10 -5 m/sec

Example 7.4

A 0.20 m diameter well is pumped at a rate of 440 gallons/min. Observations of

drawdowns taken at 1.0 m and 10.0 m distances from the centre of the well were
found to be 10.0 m and 0.50 m respectively. Determine the „K‟ if the water-bearing
strata assuming that the thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.

200
Solution

Q = 440 gal / min.

H = 30.0 m
Dia = 0.20 m
r1 = 1.0 m
r2 = 10.0 m
S1 = 10.0 m
S2 = 0.50 m
Q = 440/ (220x60) = 0.033 m³/s
Note 1m³ = 220 imperial gallons
k=?
h1 = H - S1 = 30.0-10.0 = 20.0 m
h2 = H - S2 = 30.0-0.50 = 29.50 m

We have the formula as

Q = K ( h22 - h12 )
ln (r2/r1)
0.033 = 3.1415 x K [(29.5)2 - (20.0)2]/ ln (10.0/1.0)
k = 5.2x 10-5 m/sec

201
QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by „Soil Moisture‟ and „Groundwater‟?. Explain importance of

ground water

2. What is aquifer, aquiclude, aquitard and aquifuge?

3. Define Storage Coefficient and Specific Yield?

4. What is Darcy‟s Law? Derive an expression based on this principal for flow
through porous medium. What are limitations for validity of this law?

5. Differentiate between confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer?

6. Write down the procedure for determining permeability in the field by using
Theim‟s Equilibrium Well Formula.

Exercise

Problem 7.1

A well having a diameter of 0.50 m and dug in an unconfined aquifer is. being
pumped and is delivering 0.025 m³/s. The depth of water in the well is now 50 m that
was 60 m when pumping was started. Two observation wells are installed at 7.5 m
and 15.0 m distances from centerline of well being pumped. The water level in the
well being 7.5 m from centerline of well is at depth of 55 m. Find the depth in the
second observation well?

Problem 7.2

A well of diameter 0.40 m is installed in a confined aquifer to its full depth of 100 m.
Its radius of influence is 275 m. When pumped, the well delivers 0.05 m³/s at
drawdown of 10 m. Find the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer?

202
Problem 7.3

A 0.30 m diameter well is pumped at a rate of 500 gallons/min. Observations of

drawdowns taken at 5.0 m and 20.0 m distances from the centre of the well were
found to be 15.0 m and 1.50 m respectively. Determine the „K‟ of the water bearing
strata assuming that the thickness of the aquifer is 50.0 m?

Problem 7.4:

Observational wells were drilled in a cone of depression of artesian (confined) well,

being pumped at the rate of 0.05 m³/s. The drawdown in the observational wells at
5 m and 15 m were found to be 8.5 m and 3.5 m respectively. Calculate „K‟ of the
aquifer if the average thickness of the aquifer is 80 m?

Problem 7.5

A well is sunk to the whole of an unconfined aquifer and is pumped at a constant

rate. The drawdowns in the observational wells are measured and the following data
is generated.
Static water depth = 25 m
Q = 0.05 m³/s
Diameter of well = 1.0 m
Drawdown at 10.0 m = 1.50 m
Draw down at 20.0 m = 1.00 m
Find out the coefficient of permeability „k‟, the diameter of circle of influence and
the drawdown in the well.

Problem 7.6:

A well with a radius of 0.30 m completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer with

k=25 m/day and water table height from impermeable strata at the bottom of aquifer
is 45 m. The well is pumped so that the water level in the well remains at 35 m
above the bottom of the aquifer assuming that pumping has no effect on water table
height at r = 300 m. What is steady state well discharge?

203