SURFACE WATER

Terminology
Surface storage: The part of precipitation retained temporarily at the ground surface as interception or
depression storage so that it does not appear as infiltration or surface runoff either during the rainfall period or
shortly thereafter:
Retention storage: The is the water stored held for a long period of time and depleted by evaporation
Detention storage: The water stored for a short-term period and depleted by flow away from the storage
location
Overland flow: is the movement of water over the land, downslope toward a surface water body.
Subsurface flow: All the water that flows below the ground surface. It includes both unsaturated flow and
groundwater flow
Channel flow: Also known as streamflow. It is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other channels.
The main forms of surface water are (1) overland flow (2) channel flow (3) retention storage (4) detention
storage. Channel flow is the main form of surface water flow.
Streamflow or discharge hydrograph: Is a graph or table showing the flow rate as a function of time at a given
location on the stream

Sources of streamflow
At the start of a precipitation event, a large proportion of the precipitation contributes to surface storage i.e. as
interception and depression storage. Another portion of the water infiltrates into the soil to become soil
moisture storage. The remaining portion becomes retention and detention storage.
As the detention storages begin filling, flow away from them occurs: unsaturated flow through the unsaturated
soil near the land surface, groundwater flow through saturated aquifers deeper down, and overland flow across
the land surface.
Hortonian overland flow

Figure. Overland flow on a slope produced by the excess of rainfall over infiltration
Horton (1933) definition:

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 "Neglecting interception by vegetation, surface runoff is that part of the rainfall which is not absorbed
by the soil by infiltration. If the soil has an infiltration capacity, f, expressed in depth absorbed per hour,
then when the rain intensity, i, is less than f, the rain is all absorbed and there is no surface runoff. It
may be said as a first approximation that if i is greater than f, the surface runoff will occur at the rate
(i—f). " Horton termed this difference (i—f) "rainfall excess." As flow accumulates going down a slope,
its depth increases until discharge into a stream channel occurs.
Hortonian overland flow is applicable for impervious surfaces in urban areas, and for natural surfaces with thin
soil layers and low infiltration capacity like the case of semiarid and arid lands.
Subsurface flow
On vegetated surfaces in humid regions, the infiltration capacity of the soil exceeds observed rainfall intensities
for all except the most extreme rainfalls. Subsurface flow then becomes a primary mechanism for transporting
stormwater to streams. In general, a seepage pattern develops from rainfall on the ground surface which causes
the water table to rise. During this time, recent rainwater is seeping into the stream. When rainfall stops, the
inflow stops, and groundwater recedes.
The process of subsurface flow can be summarized as follows:
a. Before rainfall, the stream surface is in equilibrium with the water table and no saturated subsurface
flow occurs.
b. At the beginning of the rainfall, all of the rainfall is infiltrated at the ground surface until when the soil
first becomes saturated
c. As time continues, decreasing infiltration occurs on the ground surface as progressively more of the
surface becomes saturated
d. The total outflow at the stream partly comprises saturated groundwater flow contributed directly to
the stream and partly unsaturated subsurface flow seeping the hillside above the water table.
Subsurface flow velocities are normally so low that subsurface flow alone cannot contribute a significant amount
of storm precipitation directly to streamflow except under special circumstances where the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil is very high (
Saturation overland flow
Surface runoff in this case is produced when subsurface flow saturates the soil near the bottom of a slope and
overland flow then occurs as rain falls onto saturated soil. Saturation overland flow differs from As opposed to
Hortonian overland flow, the soil is saturated from below by subsurface flow. Saturation overland flow occurs
most often at the bottom of hill slopes and near stream banks.
The velocity of subsurface flow is so low that not all of a watershed can contribute subsurface flow or saturation
overland flow to a stream during a storm. Variable source areas (also called partial areas) denote the area of
the watershed actually contributing flow to the stream at any time. The variable source area expands during
rainfall and contracts thereafter. The variable source area expands during rainfall and contracts thereafter.

Streamflow hydrograph
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow versus time past a specific point in a river, channel, or conduit
carrying flow. It is "an integral expression of the physiographic and climatic characteristics that govern the
relations between rainfall and runoff of a particular drainage basin". Two types of hydrographs are particularly
important: the annual hydrograph and the storm hydrograph.

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Figure. Variable source area. The small arrows in the hydrographs show how streamflow increases as the
variable source extends into swamps, shallow soils, and ephemeral channels. The process reverses as
streamflow declines.

Annual Hydrograph
This is a streamflow hydrograph over a year. It shows the long-term balance of precipitation, evaporation, and
streamflow in a watershed.
Storm Hydrograph
A storm hydrograph is a graph or table of streamflow during a storm. It shows show how a drainage basin
responds to a period of rainfall. They are useful in planning for flood situations and times of drought as they
show the discharge that originated as precipitation.
The peak stream flows in annual graphs are the result of storm precipitation. The storm hydrograph has the
following components:

C E
Discharge

A
F
G
B

Time
Figure. Components of a storm hydrograph
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AB – baseflow recession- before the time of intense rainfall, baseflow is gradually diminishing
BC – rising limb – starts after the onset of intense rainfall where the runoff begins at B and peaks at C. It is also
known as the concentration curve, which is the ascending portion of the hydrograph. Its slope steepness
depends on the rise of discharge due to the gradual building of storage in drainage channels as well as over the
watershed surface. The shape of the rising limb is dependent on the storm and watershed characteristics, both
CDE- Cres segment - it contains the peak flow. It is extended from the point of inflection on the rising limb to a
similar inflection point on the falling limb. The peak flow occurs when various parts of the watershed yield the
runoff simultaneously to the outlet. The time interval from the center of mass of rainfall to the peak is controlled
by the storm and watershed characteristics.
CD – falling limb - It is the descending portion of the hydrograph. It is also known as a recession limb. The falling
limb is extended from the point of inflection at the end of the crest segment to the commencement of natural
groundwater flow. It represents the withdrawal of water from the storage build-up in the watershed during the
initial phase of the hydrograph. The point of inflection on the falling limb of the hydrograph indicates the stage
when rainfall has been stopped and channel flow is due to storage made over the watershed. The shape of the
falling limb is dependent only on the physical features of the channel and is independent of the storm
characteristics
DE – Baseflow recession – there is no direct runoff and only groundwater contributes to streamflow

Baseflow Separation
The normal depletion curve method
It is also called the master baseflow recession curve. It is a characteristic graph of flow recessions compiled by
superimposing many of the recession curves observed on a given stream. The recession curve equation is
derived by combining the concept of the linear reservoir and the continuity principle.
Consider:
ds
(i) the continuity principle, I ( t ) − Q( t ) =
dt
Where
I(t) is inflow into the stream at time t, Q(t) is the outflow from the system at time t
ds is the change in storate at time dt
ds
At time t = t 0 , I = 0 and equation 1 becomes − Q(t) =
dt
(ii) the concept of a linear reservoir, S(t) = kQ(t)
Where
S(t) is storage at time t, k is a proportionality constant, and Q(t) is discharge at the time, t
dS dQ
Differentiating the linear reservoir equation, we can write, = −k
dt dt
dQ dt
Equate the continuity and linear reservoir equations and rearrange; =−
Q k
Integrating, k lnQ = −t + C
But t = t 0 at Q = Q 0 ∴ k lnQ 0 = −t 0 + C thus C = k lnQ 0 + t 0

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Substitute for C in and rearrange to get k ln Q − k ln Q 0 = t 0 − t
Q t0 − t Q 1
k (ln Q − lnQ 0 ) = (t 0 − t) ; rearranging ln = ; = e−k(t−t0)
Q0 k Q0
Thus
1 t
− (t−t0 ) −
Qt = Q0 e k ; if t0 = 0, Q t = Q0 e k

Graphical methods
The periods of time when the streamflow hydrograph is coincident with the normal baseflow recession curve
and the points where direct runoff begins, and ceases can be easily identified on a storm hydrograph curve.
Between these periods, direct runoff and baseflow can be separated by various graphical methods:

Figure. Baseflow separation techniques (a) Straight-line method (b) Fixed base method (c) Variable slope
method
a. The straight-line method involves drawing a horizontal line from the point at which surface runoff begins
to the intersection with the recession limb. This applies to ephemeral streams. An improvement over this
approach is to use an inclined line to connect the beginning point of the surface runoff with the point on
the recession limb of the hydrograph where normal baseflow resumes.
b. In the fixed base method, the surface runoff is assumed to end a fixed time N after the hydrograph peak.
The baseflow before the surface runoff began is projected ahead of the time of the peak. A straight line is
used to connect this projection at the peak to the point on the recession limb at time N after the peak. N is
estimated from the catchment area using the following formula:
N = A0.2 where N is number of days after the peak discharge; A is catchment area in square miles
c. In the variable slope method, the baseflow curve before the surface runoff began is extrapolated forward
to the time of peak discharge, and the baseflow curve after surface runoff ceases is extrapolated backward
to the time of the point of inflection on the recession limb. A straight line is used to connect the endpoints
of the extrapolated curves.

5
Discharge measurement
Basic principles of discharge measurement
Discharge, usually symbolized as Q, is typically calculated as the product of velocity, V and cross-sectional
area, A.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄 =𝑉×𝐴
The units of Q is L3/T, V is (L/T) and of A is L2.

Determination of discharge thus requires two measurements: the velocity of moving water in L/T, and the cross-
sectional area of the water in the channel m2. The product of these two measurements gives discharge in volume
per unit time i.e. L3/T.

The velocity of moving water varies both across a stream channel and from the surface to the bottom of the
stream because of friction and irregularities in cross-section and alignment. Friction caused by the rough
channel surfaces slows the water near the bottom and sides of a channel so that the fastest water is usually
near the center of the channel and near the surface see examples in figure below.

6
Figure. Examples of velocity profiles. The nondimensional have been obtained by dividing the point velocities
by the average velocity of the section. (source: Chow et. al., 1988)
Because of the variability in stream velocity within any cross-sectional area, the following educated
assumptions and recommendations can be applied:

1. Maximum velocity occurs at 5–25% of the depth, this percentage increases with increasing stream
depth.
2. Mean velocity in a vertical profile is approximated by the velocity at 0.6 depth.
3. Mean velocity in a vertical profile is more accurately represented by the mean of the velocities at 0.2
and 0.8 depth.
4. The mean velocity in a vertical profile is 80–95% of the surface velocity, the average of several
hundred observations being 85%.
5. For rivers greater than 10 m wide it is recommended, in line with ISO 748 and other practice, that at
least 20 verticals be used and that the discharge in any one segment does not exceed 10% of the total.
Between 20 and 30 verticals will normally be used
6. For small rivers, less than 10 meters in width, the following selection criteria are recommended:
Channel width (m) Number of verticals
0 < w < 0.5 3 to 4
0.5 ≤ w < 1 4 to 5
1≤w<3 5 to 8
3≤w<5 8 to 10
5 ≤ 10 10 to 20
w ≥ 10 20
7. . Since most channels are irregular, more than a single measurement is needed to accurately
characterize the velocity of water. The cross-section area is usually determined by measuring water
depths at a series of points across the stream and multiplying by the width of the stream within each
segment represented by the depth measurement. E.g. see figure below:

Stage Measurement
The level of water in a stream at any time is referred to as the gage height. Stream stage is an important
parameter of streamflow measurement. Some uses of stage measurement are
1. It is important in flood management
2. It is important in the design of structures,
3. It can be a surrogate for stream cross-sectional area if the stream channel has been surveyed and a
component of a stage-discharge relationship used to calculate flow.

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In a particular location, stage is often measured relative to a fixed point using a staff gage, a rigid metal plate
graduated in meters or feet attached to a secure backing and located in a part of the stream where water is
present even at low flows. During installation, staff gages are usually related by survey to a fixed reference (e.g.,
a bridge deck) so that the elevation of the gage can be checked periodically and re-established if it has been
disturbed. Stage measurements are taken by simply noting the elevation of the water surface on the graduations
of the staff gage; such instantaneous stage data are easily collected by volunteers. In the case of very large
rivers, stage can also be read by measurement of the distance from a fixed overhead point to the water surface,
e.g., using a weighted wire or tape lowered from a bridge beam.

Manual measurement of water level are made using staff gages, which are graduated boards set in the water
surface, or by means of sounding devices that signal the level at which they reach the water surface, such as a
weight on a wire suspended from a bridge over the surface of a river.
A bubble gage is an example of an automatic measurement technique which measures continuous stage gage.
It senses the water level by bubbling a continuous stream of gas (usually carbon dioxide) into the water. The
pressure required to continuously push the gas stream out beneath the water surface is a measure of the depth
of the water over the nozzle of the bubble stream. Other automatic measurement equipment include pressure
transducers and ultrasonic sensors.
Crest stage gages are used to obtain a record of flood crests at sites where recording gages are not installed. A
crest stage gage consists of a wooden staff gage or scale, situated inside a pipe that has small holes for the entry
of water. A small amount of cork is placed in the pipe, floats as the water rises, and adheres to the staff or scale
at the highest water level.
Velocity measurements
The velocity of flow in a stream is measured with a current meter. Current meters are propeller devices placed
in the flow and the speed with which the propeller rotates is usually proportional to the flow velocity. The
current meter can be hand-held in the flow in a small stream, suspended from a bridge or cableway across a
larger stream, or lowered from the bow of a boat
Discharge computation
This is calculated using the velocity-area method from measurements of flow velocity and water depth using
the following formula:
n

𝑄 = ∬ V. dA = ∑ v̅i Ai
𝐴 1

the area of the subsection i is Ai = byi ; v̅i is the average velocity for subestion i
The gauging procedure may be summarized as follows:
1. Divide the width of the river into n subsections (figure below), with a size of b meter. The value of n
usually varies between 10 and 20.

8
 2. Measure in each vertical situated in the centre of the subsection the water depth y.
3. The average velocity v in each vertical may be found in various ways:
- One point method. At a depth 0.6y below the water surface the velocity is measured. The one
point method is the least accurate.
- Two point method, which takes = 0.5(v0.2 + v0.8) where v0.2 and v0.8 are velocities measured at
0.2y and 0.8y.
- Multiple point method. At various depths the velocity is measured.
4. The discharge Q is then computed as
n

𝑄 = ∬ V. dA = ∑ v̅i Ai
𝐴 1

the area of the subsection i is Ai = byi ; v̅i is the average velocity for subestion i
There are two methods that can be used for discharge computation:
Mid-section method:
Example:

In this case sections M and N are not included in computation of discharge. The discharge is then calculated as
𝑣0.2𝑑 + 𝑣0.8𝑑
∆𝑄 (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝) = 𝑏. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. 𝑑. 𝑣0.6𝑑 𝑄 = ∑ ∆𝑄
2
Mean section method:
Example:

9
 𝑑2 + 𝑑 3 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
∆𝑄 (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝) = (𝑏. 𝑑𝑚 )𝑣𝑚 ; 𝑒. 𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 3. 𝑑𝑚 = ; 𝑣𝑚 = ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ∑ ∆𝑄
2 2
Streamflowrate
The rating curve is the most common method for measurement of stream flow. It is developed using a set of
measurements of discharge and gage height in the stream, these measurements being made over a period of
months or years so as to obtain an accurate relationship between the streamflowrate, or discharge, and the
gage height at the gaging site. A rating curve is therefore a graph pf discharge versus stage for a given point on
a stream, usually at gauging stations, where the stream discharge is measured across the stream channel with
a flow meter.
Gage height, h

Discharge, Q
The rating curve is then used to convert records of water level into flow rates. The rating curve must be checked
periodically to ensure that the relationship between the discharge and gage height has remained constant;
scouring of the stream bed or deposition of sediment in the stream can cause the rating curve to change so that
the same recorded gage height produces a different discharge.
The relationship between water level and the flow rate at a given site can be maintained consistently by
constructing a special flow control device in the stream, such as a sharp crested weir or a flume.

Excess rainfall and direct runoff

Definitions
Excess rainfall/effective rainfall: It is that rainfall which is neither retained on the land surface nor infiltrated
into the soil.

10
Direct runoff/storm runoff: It is the water that flows over the ground surface directly into streams, rivers, or
lakes under the assumption of Hortonian overland flow.

Excess rainfall hyetograph: it is the graph of excess rainfall vs time

Rainfall abstractions/rainfall losses: This is the difference between the observed total rainfall hyetograph and
the excess rainfall hyetograph. They are primarily water absorbed by infiltration with some allowance for
interception and surface storage.

Methods of determining excess rainfall hyetograph

The excess rainfall hyetograph may be determined from the rainfall hyetograph in one of two ways, depending
on whether streamflow data are available for the storm or not.
a. When streamflow data is available
Runoff coefficients
Runoff coefficient is the ratio of the peak rate of direct runoff to the average intensity of rainfall in a storm.
Because of highly. variable rainfall intensity, this value is difficult to determine from observed data. A runoff
coefficient can also be defined to be the ratio of runoff to rainfall over a given time period.
rd
Runoff coefficient, C = M
∑m=1 R m
M

Where ∑ R m is the total rainfall and rd the correspondin gdepth of runoff, then a runoff coefficient can be d
m=1

Phi-index method:
This assumes a constant rate of abstractions (mm/h) that will yield an excess rainfall hyetograph (ERH) with a
total depth equal to the depth of direct runoff rd over the watershed. the watershed. The value of ɸ is
determined by picking a time interval length Δt, judging the number of intervals M of rainfall that actually
contribute to direct runoff, subtracting ɸΔt from the observed rainfall in each interval, and adjustingthe values
of ɸ and M as necessary so that the depths of direct runoff and excess rainfall are equal i.e.:
𝑀

𝑟𝑑 = ∑ (𝑅𝑚 − 𝜑∆𝑡)
𝑚=1

R m is the observed rainfall (mm)in the interval m, rd is the depth of direct runoff
The computation uses the following procedure:
Step 1: Estimate baseflow
Step 2: Calculate the direct runoff hydrograph.

Step 3: Compute the volume Vd and depth rd of direct runoff.

Step 4. Estimate the rate of rainfall abstractions by infiltration and surface storage in the watershed. Any rainfall
prior to the beginning of direct runoff is taken as initial abstraction. The abstraction rate ɸ, and M, the
number of nonzero pulses of excess rainfall, are found by trial and error.
See example 5.3.1. Chow et al (1988)

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b. When streamflow data is not available
In most hydrologic problems, the streamflow hydrograph is not available, and the abstractions must be
determined by calculating infiltration and accounting separately for other forms of abstraction, such as
interception, and detention or depression storage.
(i) Abstractions using infiltration equations
The main principle is to device a method for determining the ponding time, infiltration after ponding occurs.
The other forms of abstractions i.e. interception, detention and depression storage are accounted for first.
In the absence of ponding, cumulative infiltration is calculated from cumulative rainfall; the potential infiltration
rate at a given time is calculated from the cumulative infiltration at that time; and ponding has occurred when
the potential infiltration rate is less than or equal to the rainfall intensity.
Ponding time
All these methods used for calculating infiltration used the assumption that water is ponded to a small depth
on the soil surface so all the water the soil can infiltrate is available at the surface. However, during a rainfall,
water will pond on the surface only if the rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil. The
ponding time tp is the elapsed time between the time rainfall begins and the time water begins to pond on the
soil surface.
Prior to the ponding time (t < tp), the rainfall intensity is less than the potential infiltration rate and the soil
surface is unsaturated. Ponding begins when the rainfall intensity exceeds the potential infiltration rate. At this
time (t = tp), the soil surface is saturated. As rainfall continues (t > tp), the saturated zone extends deeper into
the soil and overland flow occurs from the ponded water. The following equations are used to calculate time to
ponding and infiltration after ponding:
Table. Equations for calculating ponding time and infiltration after ponding occurs.

Table. Equations for calculating infiltration at and following ponding using finite differences

12
13
(ii) SCS method for abstractions
This was developed the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) in 1972.
The principle:

Figure. Variables in the SCS method of rainfall abstractions: Ia = initial abstraction, Pe = rainfall excess, Fa —
continuing,
1. For the storm, the depth of excess precipitation or direct runoff Pe is always less than or equal to the depth
of precipitation P; likewise, after runoff begins, the additional depth of water retained in the watershed, Fa,
is less than or equal to some potential maximum retention S”
2. There is some amount of rainfall Ia (initial abstraction before ponding) for which no runoff will occur, so the
potential runoff is P — Ia.
3. The hypothesis of the SCS method is that the ratios of the two equal to the two potential quantities are
equal:
𝐹𝑎 𝑃𝑒
=
𝑆 𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎
From continuity principle:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐹𝑎
(𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 )2
𝑃𝑒 =
𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑆
Studies have shown that initial abstractions and maximum retention are related according to the following
relationship:
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2
𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆; 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑒 =
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆
Curves of P and Pe from many watersheds have been developed. Using a dimensionless curve number, CN,
these curves have been standardized. CN is defined such that 0 ≤ CN ≤ 100. For impervious and
water surfaces CN = 100; for natural surfaces CN < 100.

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Figure. Solution of the SCS runoff equations
The CN and S are related as follows:
1000
S= − 10; S is in inches
CN
The CN shown above apply for normal antecedent moisture conditions (AMC II). For dry conditions (AMC I) or
wet conditions (AMC III), equivalent curve numbers can be computed by:
4.2𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼) 23𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)
CN(I) = ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼𝐼) =
10 − 0.058𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼) 10 + 0.13𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)

15
Antecedent Moisture conditions:
Table: Classification of antecedent moisture classes (AMC) for the SCS method of rainfall abstractions
(Source SCS, 1972)

Total 5-day antecedent rainfall (in)

AMC group Dormant season Growing season

I Less than 0.5 Less than 1.4

II 0.5 to 1.1 1.4 to 2.1

III Over 1.1 Over 2.1

Curve numbers have been tabulated by the Soil Conservation Service on the basis of soil type and land use. Four
soil groups are defined:
Group A: Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated silts
Group B: Shallow loess, sandy loam
Group C: Clay loams, shallow sandy loam, soils low in organic content, and soils usually high in clay
Group D: Soils that swell significantly when wet, heavy plastic clays, and certain saline soils
The values of CN for various land uses on these soil types are given in the following table: If a watershed is made
up of several soil types and land uses, a composite CN is calculated
Table: Runoff curve numbers for selected agricultural, suburban, and urban land uses (antecedent moisture
condition II, Ia = 0.2S)

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Travel time:
Read from Vhow et al (1988) PP 164 - 166
The travel time of flow from one point on a watershed to another can be deduced from the flow distance and
velocity. If two points on a stream are a distance L apart and the velocity along the path connecting them is v(l),
where l is distance along the path, then the travel time t is given by:
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑣(𝑙)𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑜𝑟 𝑡=∫
0 0 (𝑣(𝑙) 0 (𝑣(𝑙)
If the velocity can be assumed constant at vi in an increment of length ∆li, I = 1, 2, …, I, then:
𝐼
∆𝑙𝑖
𝑡=∑
𝑣𝑖
𝑖=1

Velocities for use in the above equation may be estimated from the values in the following table below:
Table: Approximate average velocities in ft/s of runoff flow for calculating time of concentration

17
Because of the travel time to the watershed outlet, only part of the watershed may be contributing to surface
water flow at any time t after precipitation begins. The growth of the contributing area may be visualized as in
the figure below. If rainfall of constant intensity begins and continues indefinitely, then the area bounded by
the dashed line labeled t1 will contribute to streamflow at the watershed outlet after time t2 likewise, the area
bounded by the line labeled t2 will contribute to
equal time of flow to the outlet and are called isochrones. The time at which all of the watershed begins to
contribute is the time of concentration Tc this is the time of flow from the farthest point on the watershed to
the outlet.

Figure. Isochrones at t1 and t2 define the area contributing to flow at the outlet for rainfall of durations t1 and t2.
Time of concentration tc is the time of flow from the farthest point in the watershed (A) to the outlet (B)
Example: Calculate the time of concentration of a watershed in which the longest flow path covers 100 feet of
pasture at a 5 percent slope, then enters a 1000-foot-long rectangular channel having width 2 ft, roughness n
= 0.015, and slope 2.5 percent, and receiving a lateral flow of 0.00926 cfs/ft.
The velocity and depth of flow at 200-foot increments along a 1000-foot-long rectangular channel having
width 2 ft, roughness n = 0.015, and slope S = 0.025, supplied by a lateral flow of 0.00926 cfs/ft is given in the
table below

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Solution:
For the pastureland:
From the previous table of ‘average velocities for calculating time of concentration’; pasture at 5 percent slope
has a velocity of flow in the range 2.5-3.5 ft/s; use a velocity of 3.0 ft/s.
The travel time over the 100 feet of pasture is
∆𝑙 100
∆𝑡 = = = 33 𝑠
𝑣 3.0
For the rectangular channel,
The velocity at 200-foot intervals is given.
The travel time over each interval is found from the average velocity in that interval.
For example:
∆𝑙 200
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 200 𝑓𝑡, ∆𝑡 = = = 86.2 𝑠.
𝑣̅ 2.32
This yields a total travel time for the channel of 208.5 s, as shown in the following table.

The time of concentration tc is the sum of the travel times over pasture and in the channel,
𝑖. 𝑒. 33 + 209 = 242𝑠 = 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

Factors that affect the shape of a storm hydrograph

The time distribution of runoff (the shape of the hydrograph) is influenced by climatic, topographic and
geological factors. The climatic and topographic factors mainly affect the rising limb whereas the geological
factors determine the recession limb.
Climatic factors
1. Rainfall intensity affects the amount of runoff and the peak flow rate. For a given rainfall duration, an increase
in intensity will increase the peak discharge and the runoff volume, provided the infiltration rate of the soil is
exceeded.

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2. Rainfall duration affects the amount of runoff, the peak flow rate and the duration of surface runoff. For a
rain of given intensity, the rainfall duration determines, in part, the peak flow. If a storm lasts long enough,
eventually a fixed fraction C of the precipitation will become runoff (the time after which this occurs is called
the time of concentration); consequently the peak flow will approach a rate equal to the product C*i*A, where
C is the runoff coefficient i is the rainfall intensity and A is the area of the basin. This situation is never reached
in large basins, but may occur in small watersheds and is frequently used as the criterion for design of storm
sewers, airport drainage or small culverts (see Section 6.1).
3. The areal distribution of rainfall can cause variations in hydrograph shape. If an area of high rainfall is near
to the basin outlet, a rapid rise, sharp peak and rapid recession of the hydrograph usually result. If a larger
amount of rainfall occurs in the upper reaches of a basin, the hydrograph exhibits a lower and broader peak.
4. The direction of storm movement with respect to orientation of the basin affects both the magnitude of the
peak flow and the duration of surface runoff. Storm direction has the greatest effect on elongated basins. On
these basins, storms that move upstream tend to produce lower peaks of a longer duration than storms that
move downstream.
5. The type of storm is important in that thunderstorms produce peak flows on small basins, whereas large
cyclonic or frontal-type storms are generally determinant in larger basins.

Topographic and geologic factors

1. Catchment size: The major effect of increasing the drainage area on the hydrograph shape is that the
time base of the hydrograph is lengthened. The peak flow per unit area thus reduces with catchment
size for a given rainfall depth. This is partly due to the rainfall intensity being less for storms of extensive
size, and partly due to the longer time required for the total catchment area to contribute to the peak
runoff (time of concentration).
2. Distribution of water courses: The pattern and arrangement of the natural stream channels determine
the efficiency of the drainage system. Other factors being constant, the time required for water to flow
a given distance is directly proportional to length. Since a well-defined system reduces the distance
water must move overland, the corresponding reduction in time involved is reflected by an outflow
hydrograph having a short time to peak.
3. The steeper the slope of the catchment, the more rapidly surface runoff will travel. The time to peak
will be shorter and the peaks will be higher. Infiltration capacities tend to be lower as slopes get steeper,
thus accentuating runoff.
4. Since storage must first be filled before it empties, it has a delaying and modifying effect on hydrograph
shape. Much of the variation caused by the above factors are smoothed out by natural or artificial
storage.
5. The pedology and geology of the catchment influence primarily the groundwater component and the
"losses". High infiltration rates reduce the surface runoff; high permeabilities combined with high
transmissivities substantially enhance the baseflow component. The type of stream (influent, effluent
or intermittent) can have a substantial impact on hydrograph shape
6. Land use, finally, can strongly influence the runoff coefficient. Urbanized areas may have a runoff
coefficient of almost 100%, whereas natural vegetation may have low runoff. Plowing, drainage,
cropping intensity, afforestation etc. also have a considerable effect on runoff.
7. The effect of shape of the catchment can best be demonstrated by considering the hydrographs of
discharges from three differently shaped catchments with the same surface area, subject to rainfall of

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 the same intensity (see figure). The lines of equal run-time (isochrones) to the outlet show that shape
B has the smallest time of concentration (5 hours), and thus reaches the peak after 5 hours. The most
elongated catchment needs 10 hours to reach the peak. Also the effect is shown in the hydrographs of
a storm that moves upstream (a1) and downstream (a2) in the elongated catchment. It can be seen that
the rise is sudden when the storm moves downstream and slow when it moves upstream.

Stream Networks
In fluid mechanics, the study of the similarity of fluid flow in systems of different sizes is an important tool in
relating the results of small-scale model studies to large-scale prototype applications. In hydrology, the
geomorphology of the watershed, or quantitative study of the surface landform, is used to arrive at measures
of geometric similarity among watersheds, especially among their stream networks.
The quantitative study of stream networks was originated by Horton (1945). He developed a system for ordering
stream networks and derived laws relating the number and length of streams of different order. Horton's stream
ordering system, as slightly modified by Strahler (1964), is as follows:
The smallest recognizable channels are designated order 1; these channels normally flow only during wet
weather.
Where two channels of order 1 join, a channel of order 2 results downstream.
In general, where two channels of order i join, a channel of order i + 1 results.
Where a channel of lower order joins a channel of higher order, the channel downstream retains the higher of
the two orders.

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The order of the drainage basin is designated as the order of the stream draining its outlet, the highest stream
order in the basin, I.
An example of this classification system is shown below:

Fig. A Watershed showing the delineation of stream orders. The Hortons stream order for this rive = 3
Bifurcation ratio, RB (also called the Horton’s law of Stream Numbers)
The ratio of the number Ni, of channels of order i to the number Ni +1 of channels of order
i + 1 is relatively constant from one order to another. This gives the Horton's Law of Stream Numbers:
𝑁𝑖
= 𝑅𝐵 𝑖 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝐼 − 1
𝑁𝑖+1
Example: what is the Bifurcation ratio for the stream shown in the previous figure?
Solution:
𝑁1 = 28; 𝑁2 = 5; 𝑁31 = 1;
𝑁1 28 𝑁2 5
= = 5.6; = =5
𝑁2 5 𝑁3 1

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Horton’s law of Stream Lengths
By measuring the length of each stream, the average length of streams of each order, Li, can be found. The Law
of Stream Lengths was proposed by Horton in which the average lengths of streams of successive orders are
related by a length ratio RL:
𝐿𝑖+1
= 𝑅𝐿
𝐿𝑖
Schumn’s Law of Stream Areas
The law of stream areas according to Schumn relates the average areas Ai drained by streams of successive
order
𝐴𝑖+1
= 𝑅𝐴
𝐴𝑖
Graphical determination of Laws of stream Lengths and Areas
These ratios are computed by plotting the values for Ni, Li, and Ai on a logarithmic scale against stream order
on a linear scale against stream order on a linear scale. RB, RL, and RA are computed from the slopes of the lines
on these graphs.
Examples:

Fig. Geomorphological parameters for the Mamon Basins (Mamon in the right and Mamon in the left – Mamon
5 is a subbasin of Mamon) in Venazuela; Source Chow et al (1988)

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Fig. Drainage basin of the Mamon watershed in Venezuela
The consistency of RB, RL, and RA between the two watersheds demonstrates their geometric similarity. Studies
have been made to relate the characteristics of flood hydrographs to stream network parameters.
Drainage density, D
This is the ratio of the total length of a stream channel in a watershed to its area. i.e.

∑𝑙𝑖=1 ∑𝑁𝑖
𝑗=1 𝐿𝑖𝑗
𝐷=
𝐴𝑙
𝐿𝑖𝑗 is the length of the jth stream order 𝑖

Average length of overland flow, L0

If the streams are fed by Hortonian overland flow from all of their contributing area, then the average length of
overland flow, L0, is given approximately by:
1
𝐿0 =
2𝐷

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