1 Hydrology

SOIL WATER
Soil water is the water that is found below the ground surface. It is comprised of two parts:
a) Soil water – the water in the unsaturated zone. In this case, the voids in the soil matrix are filled by both
water and air.
b) Groundwater – the water that is in the saturated zone. In this case, the voids in the soil matrix filled by
water only

Importance
1. It is the main factor in the generation of surface runoff
2. It contributes to groundwater recharge
3. It is important in solute transport on the subsurface. Some solutes move in a dissolved state and in
many cases, water is the main solvent. consequently, to know the movement of pollutants in the
subsurface and their concentrations, it is important to know the movement of groundwater
4. The main source of water for plants comes from sub-surface water

Terminologies:
Infiltration: the process of water penetrating from the ground surface into the soil
Subsurface flow/ unsaturated flow: the flow of water in the unsaturated zone
Groundwater flow: the flow of water in the saturated zone
Volumetric soil water content, Ɵ = Volume of water/Volume of soil (-)
Field Capacity Ɵfc is the maximum moisture content of the soil under freely drained conditions. In other words,
it is the amount of soil moisture or water content held in the soil after excess water has drained away and the
rate of downward movement has decreased. This usually occurs 2 – 3 days after rain or irrigation in previous
soils of uniform structure and texture
Wilting point (WP) or permanent wilting point (PWP), is the minimum moisture content that a plant requires
not to wilt. In other words, the minimum moisture content at which plants can extract water. It is
usually denoted as θ WP or θ PWP . Wilting point is affected by the type of soil and type of plant. Different soils
have different adsorption and capillarity capacities while different plants have different ways in which they
extract water from the soil.
Soil moisture deficit is the difference between field capacity and wilting point.

Porosity: simply the fraction of the material volume that is pore space. In quantitative terms the porosity n is
defined as Vv/Vt; where Vv is the volume of voids in a total volume of material Vt.
Water table: The level below which the ground is saturated with water and the water pressure at that level is
equal to atmospheric pressure
Capillary fringe: a short depth above the water table that is saturated by water as a result of capillary action
Subsurface and groundwater outflow: Occurs when subsurface water emerges to become surface flow in a
stream or a spring

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2 Hydrology

The storage processes

Water in the saturated zone is stored mainly through gravity forces. In the unsaturated zone, some forces
enhance the storage of water in the soil. In this case, these forces should be large enough to overcome forces
of gravity. They are (1) adsorption and (2) capillary forces.
Adsorption: This is the attachment of water molecules on the soil particles’ surface. In this case, a thin film of
water surrounds each soil particle. See figure below. Adsorption forces are electrostatic, whereby both the
particles and the water film have different charges. Storage due to this process can be very high due to the large
surface area of soil particles.

Fig. Water and air in the pore spaces of a granular medium.

It follows, therefore, that the size and shape of the soil particles have a great influence on the amount of
adsorbed water. Spherical particles have less surface area when compared to particles with irregular surfaces
Capillary action: Surface tension is the main driving force in this process. In the sub-surface, surface tension is
brought about by the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the
molecules of air (due to adhesion). The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to
behave as if its surface were covers with a stretched elastic membrane. The surface thus comes under tension
from the imbalanced forces, hence the term surface tension.
As a result of the adsorption and capillarity forces, soil water exerts some pressure (negative pressure) since its
storage is based on action forces. The higher the forces, the less the water stored in the soil.

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3 Hydrology

Subsurface flow processes

Subsurface flow processes important to surface water hydrology are infiltration, subsurface flow (unsaturated
flow), and groundwater flow.

Ground surface Infiltration

Sub surface flow

Water table
Sub surface outflow
filtration
Groundwater flow
filtration
Groundwater outflow
filtration
Measurement of soil water
There are three methods:
Gravimetric method
In this method, a subsample of a fresh, sieved composite sample or a fresh soil core is weighed, oven dried until
there is no further mass loss, and then reweighed. The moisture content is expressed as mass of water per mass
of dry soil
This method can be used to determine moisture content of soils at different depths. Further, this method is
widely used and is accurate.
One disadvantage about this method is that it soil moisture cannot be recorded at very short intervals e.g. after
every one hour. Further, the method is very local to place and time of measurement
Tensiometer sealed tube, h and P in the material surrounding the
cup may be deduced using the following formula:
The tensiometer consists of a fine-grained porous
ceramic cup connected to a sealed pipe that is filled
with water. A pressure gage connected to the
sealed tube measures the water pressure near the
top of the sealed tube. After filling and sealing the
tube during installation, water will flow out through
the porous cup into the soil. As water flows out of
the cup, the pressure in the sealed system declines
until the pressure within the cup equals the pore
water pressure in the surrounding unsaturated
zone. The head or pressure in the soil adjacent to
the cup is calculated assuming hydrostatic
conditions from the pressure gage (point A in Figure
below) to the porous cup (point B):
Pore water communicates through the porous cup
to the manometer or tube. By measuring the water
level in the manometer or the pressure in the
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4 Hydrology

A tensiometer for measuring pressures and heads in gage is -19,780 𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 . Calculate the pressure at the
the unsaturated zone. By measuring the pressure at porous cup.
A, the head and pressure at B can be calculated 𝑃𝑩 𝑃𝐴
= + 𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵
𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝜌𝑤 𝑔
ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴 = + 𝑧𝐴
𝜌𝑤 𝑔 −19780 𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
= + 142.90 𝑚
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝐵 = 9810 𝑁 ⁄𝑚3
− 141.30 𝑚 = −0.42 𝑚
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑝
(m) The pressure at the porous cup is calculated from
the pressure head:
ℎ𝐴
= ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑚); 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑩
𝑃𝑩 = × 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = −0.42 𝑚 × 9810 𝑁 ⁄𝑚3
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 (𝑁⁄𝑚2 ) ; 𝜌𝑤 𝑔
= −4084 𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚⁄𝑠2 )

The pressure head can be converted into moisture

Example:
content using characteristic curves. Below is an
A tensiometer is installed with the porous cup at example curve for several soils.
elevation 141.30 m and the pressure gage at
elevation 142.90 m. the pressure measured at the

Water content and pressure

The pore water pressure P in the unsaturated zone
is less than atmospheric pressure due to the tension
in the water as it is attracted to and “stretched over
the mineral surfaces. As the water content θ
decreases, the forces of attraction between water
and the matrix play a larger and larger role
compared to other forces. In general, the lower the
water content, the lower the pore water pressure.
Characteristic curves give the relationships
between θand P in granular soils. Smaller pore size
materials tend towards lower pore water pressures
at a given water content.

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5 Hydrology

Neutron probe
The instrument contains two parts: (1) a radioactive
source – a typical neutron probe contains a pellet of
americium-241 and beryllium. The alpha particles
emitted by the decay of the americium collide with
the light beryllium nuclei, producing fast neutrons.
(2) a radioactive detector – when these fast neutrons
collide with hydrogen nuclei present in the soil being
studied, they lose much of their energy. The
detection of slow neutrons returning to the probe
allows an estimate of the amount of hydrogen
present. Since water contains two atoms of hydrogen
per molecule, this therefore gives a measure of soil
moisture content of the soil.

Infiltration
Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. It replenishes the soil moisture deficiency and
the excess moves downward by the force of gravity called deep seepage or percolation and builds up the
groundwater table. Infiltration is a very complex process that can be described only approximately with
mathematical equations. Many factors influence infiltration rate:

• Condition of the soil surface

• Vegetation cover.
• Properties of the soil: porosity, hydraulic conductivity, current moisture content of the soil
• Depth of water on the soil surface
• Soil structure
• Viscosity of the water
• Intensity and duration of rainfall
The distribution of soil moisture within the soil profile during the downward movement of water is illustrated
in the following. There are four moisture zones:
A saturated zone near the surface, A transmission zone of unsaturated flow and fairly uniform moisture
content, A wetting zone in which moisture decreases with depth, A wetting front where the change of moisture
content with depth is so great as to give the appearance of a sharp discontinuity between the wet soil above
and the dry soil below.
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6 Hydrology

Depending on the amount of infiltration and the physical properties of the soil, the wetting front may penetrate
from a few inches to several feet into a soil. The infiltration rate f, expressed in inches per hour or centimeters
per hour, is the rate at which water enters the soil at the surface. If water is ponded on the surface, the
infiltration occurs at the at the potential infiltration rate. If the rate of supply of water at the surface, for
example by rainfall, is less than the potential rate, then the actual infiltration rate will also be less than the
potential rate. Most infiltration equations describe the potential rate. The cumulative infiltration F is the
accumulated depth of water infiltrated during a given time period.

0 Moisture content
Saturation zone

Transition zone
Depth

Transmission zone

Wetting zone
Wetting front

Moisture zones during infiltration

Calculating Infiltration:
Horton’s Equation
The empirical relation developed by Horton (Horton, 1933, 1939) assumes that the infiltrability rate decreases
exponentially with time, until it reaches a quasi-constant rate:
𝑑𝐹
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ; =𝑓
𝑑𝑡
Where k (with dimensions 𝑇 −1 ) is a decay constant

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7 Hydrology

f0 f0

Infiltration rate f and

F

cumulative infiltration, F
k1
Infiltration rate f

k2

k 1 > k2 k1 >k2

fc fc f

0 0
Time Time

(a) Variation of the parameter k (b) infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration
Infiltration by Horton’s equation

Philip’s Equation
Philip (1957, 1969) solved Richards’s equation under less restrictive conditions by assuming that K and D
(parameters of the Richards equation) can vary with the moisture content 𝜃. Philip employed the Boltzmann
transformation 𝐵(𝜃) =𝑧𝑡 −1/2 to yield an infinite series for cumulative infiltration 𝐹(𝑡), which is approximated
by
1
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑡 −2 + 𝐾𝑡
Where S is a parameter called sorptivity, a function of the soil suction; K is the hydraulic conductivity. The rate
of infiltration is obtained by differentiating equation F(t):
𝑑𝐹 1 −1
𝑓(𝑡) = = 𝑆𝑡 2 + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡 2
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑡) tends to K. the two terms in Philip’s equation represent the effects of soil suction head and
gravity head, respectively. For a horizontal column of soil, soil suction is the only force drawing water into the
column, and Philip’s equation reduces to 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑡 1/2
Example: A small tube with a cross-sectional area of 40cm2 is filled with soil and laid horizontally. The open end
of the tube is saturated, and after 15 minutes, 100 cm 3 of water have infiltrated into the tube. If the if the
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 0.4. cm/h, determine how much infiltration would have taken
place in 30 minutes if the soil column had initially been placed upright with its upper surface saturated.
Solution: the cumulative infiltration depth in the horizontal column F=100cm3/40cm2 = 2.5 cm. For horizontal
infiltration, cumulative infiltration is a function of soil suction alone so that after t-15 min = 0.25 h,

𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑡 1/2 ∴ 2.5 = 𝑆(0.25)1/2 ; 𝑆 = 5𝑐𝑚 ℎ−1/2

1
For infiltration down a vertical column, 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑡 −2 + 𝐾𝑡 applies with K=0.4 cm/h. Hence, with t= 30min = 0.5
h:

𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑡 1/2 + 𝐾𝑡 = 5(0.5)1/2 + 0.4(0.5) = 3.74 𝑐𝑚

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8 Hydrology

Green-Ampt Method
As opposed to previous methods, the Green-Ampt method is a more approximate approach to develop a more
approximate physical theory that has an exact analytical solution. Green and Ampt (1911) proposed the
simplified picture of infiltration shown in the following figure. The wetting front is a sharp boundary dividing soil
of moisture content Ɵi below from saturated soil with moisture content η above. The wetting front has
penetrated to a depth L in time t since infiltration began. Water is ponded to a small depth ℎ0 on the soil surface.
Continuity
Consider a vertical column of soil of unit horizontal cross-sectional area and let a control volume be defined
around the wet soil between the surface and depth L. if the soil was initially of moisture content θi throughout
its entire depth, the moisture content will increase from θi to η (the porosity) as the wetting front passes. The
moisture content θ is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume within the control surface, so the
increase in the water stored within the control volume as a result of infiltration is L (η- θi) for a unit cross section.
By definition, this is equal to F, the cumulative depth of water infiltrated into the soil. Therefore:
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿( η − 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝐿∆𝜃 where ∆𝜃 = ( η − θ)

h0
h0
0 Ground surface

Wetted zone L Wet soil

(conductivity K) L

Wetting front Wetting front

θr
Dry soil
θi Δθ
θe

Variables in the Green-Ampt infiltration model. The vertical axis is the distance from the soil surface, the
horizontal axis is the moisture content of the soil.

Momentum
Darcy’s law may be expressed
𝜕ℎ
𝑞 = −𝐾
𝜕𝑧
In this case the Darcy flux q, is constant throughout the depth and is equal to –f, because q is positive upward
while f is positive downward. If points 1 and 2 are located respectively at the ground surface and just on the dry
side of the wetting front, equation can be estimated by:

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9 Hydrology

ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑓 =𝐾[ ]
𝑧1 − 𝑧2
The head h1 at the surface is equal to the ponded depth h0. The head h2 in the dry soil below the wetting front,
equals −𝜑 − 𝐿. Darcy’s law for this system is written:
ℎ0 − (−𝜑 − 𝐿) (𝜑 + 𝐿)
𝑓 = 𝐾[ ] ≅ 𝐾[ ]
𝐿 𝐿
If the ponded depth h0, is negligible compared to 𝜑 and L. this assumption is usually appropriate for surface
water hydrology problems because it is assumed that ponded water becomes surface runoff. We have seen that
𝐹 = 𝐿∆𝜃 ∴ 𝐿 = 𝐹/∆𝜃 and assuming h0 = 0. Substitution into the previous equation yields:
𝜑∆𝜃 + 𝐹)
𝑓 = 𝐾[ ]
𝐹
Since 𝑓 = 𝑑𝐹 ⁄𝑑𝑡 equation 6.1.3.5 can be written as a differential equation in the unknown 𝐹:
𝑑𝐹 𝜑∆𝜃 + 𝐹 𝐹
= 𝐾[ ]; to solve for F, rearrange to get [ ] 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐾𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐹 𝐹 + 𝜑∆𝜃
Split the left-hand side into two parts:
𝐹 + 𝜑∆𝜃 𝜑∆𝜃
[( )−( )] 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐾𝑑𝑡 and integrate
𝐹 + 𝜑∆𝜃 𝐹 + 𝜑∆𝜃
𝐹(𝑡) 𝑡
𝜑∆𝜃
∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝐾𝑑𝑡 the result is
0 𝐹 + 𝜑∆𝜃 0

𝐹(𝑡) − 𝜑∆𝜃 {ln [𝐹(𝑡) + 𝜑∆𝜃] − ln 𝜑∆𝜃} = 𝐾𝑡; rearranging

𝑭(𝒕)
𝑭(𝒕) − 𝝋∆𝜽 𝐥𝐧 (𝟏 + ) = 𝑲𝒕
𝝋∆𝜽
The above equation is the Green-Ampt equation for cumulative infiltration. Once F is found from this equation,
the the rate of infiltration can be obtained from equation 6.1.3.5 or
𝝋∆𝜽
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑲 ( + 𝟏)
𝑭(𝒕)
In the case when the ponded depth is not negligible, the value of 𝜑 − ℎ0 is substituted for 𝜑 in the equations
The equation for calculating cumulative infiltration is a nonlinear equation in F. it may be solved by the method
of successive substitution by rearranging equation 6.1.3.6 to read:
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜑∆𝜃 ln (1 + ) (6.1.3.8)
𝜑∆𝜃
Given 𝐾, 𝑡, 𝜑 and ∆𝜃, a trial value F is substituted on the right-hand side (a good trial value is 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑡), and a
new value of F calculated on the left-hand side, which is substituted as a trial value on the right hand side, and
so on, until the calculated values of F converge to a constant. This equation can also be solved by Newton’s
iteration method, which is more complicated that the method of successive substitution but converges in fewer
iterations.
Green-Ampt Parameters
The method is applicable for relatively coarse soils that are initially dry. Application of this method requires
estimates of the hydraulic conductivity 𝐾, the porosity 𝜂, and the wetting front suction head 𝜑.

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10 Hydrology

Green-Ampt infiltration parameters for various soil classes

Soil class Porosity Effective porosity Wetting front soil Hydraulic

𝜼 𝜽𝒆 suction head conductivity
𝝋 (cm) K (cm/h)
Sand 0.437 0.417 4.95 11.78
(0.374-0.500) (0.354-0.480) (0.95-25.36)
Loamy sand 0.437 0.401 6.13 2.99
(0.363-0.506) (0.329-0.473) (1.35-27.94)
Sandy loam 0.453 0.412 11.01 1.09
(0.351-0.555) (0.283-0.541) (2.67-45.47)
Loam 0463 0.434 8.89 0.34
(0.375-0.551) (0.334-0.534) (1.33-59.38)
Silt loam 0.501 0.486 16.68 0.65
(0.420-0.582) (0.394-0.578) (2.92-95.39)
Sandy clay loam 0.398 0.330 21.85 0.15
(0.332-0.464) (0.235-0.425) (4.42-108.0)
Clay loam 0.464 0.309 20.88 0.10
(0.409-0.519) (0.279-0.501) (4.79-91.10)
Silty clay loam 0.471 0.432 27.30 0.10
(0.418-0.524) (0.347-0.517) (5.67-131.50)
Sandy clay 0.430 0.321 23.90 0.06
(0.370-0.490) (0.207-0.435) (4.08-140.2)
Silty clay 0.479 0.423 29.22 0.05
(0.425-0.533) (0.334-0.512) (6.13-139.4)
Clay 0.475 0.385 31.63 0.03
(0.427-0.523) (0.269-0.501) (6.39-156.5)

Example: compute the infiltration f and cumulative infiltration F after one hour of infiltration into a silt loam
soil that initially had an effective saturation of 30%. Assume water is ponded to a small but negligible depth on
the surface.
Solution: from table 6.1.3.1, silt loam soil has an effective porosity θe = 0.486, ψ = 16.7 cm, and K = 0.65 cm/h.
the initial effective saturation is se = 0.3, so in equation 6.1.3.10
∆𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠𝑒 )𝜃𝑒 = (1 − 0.3)(0.486) = 0.340
and 𝜑∆𝜃 = 16.7 × 0.340 = 5.68 cm
the cumulative infiltration at t= 1 h is calculated by applying the method of successive substitution in equation
6.1.3.8. Take a trial value of F(t) = Kt = 0.65 cm, then calculate
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜑∆𝜃 ln (1 + )
𝜑∆𝜃
0.65
= 0.65 × 1 + 5.68 ln (1 + ) = 1.27 𝑐𝑚
5.68
Substituting F=1.27 cm into the right-hand side of the equation above gives F = 1.79 cm, and after a number of
iterations, F converges to a constant value of 3.17 cm. the infiltration rate after one hour is found from equation
6.1.3.7

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𝜑∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 ( + 1)
𝐹(𝑡)
5.68
= 0.65 ( + 1) = 1.81 cm/h
3.17
Methods of measuring Infiltration
The methods of determining infiltration are:
i. Infiltrometers
ii. Observation in pits and ponds
iii. Placing a catch basin below a laboratory sample
iv. Artificial rain simulators: on a small area of land of 0.1 to 50 m2, water is applied by artificial showers at a
uniform rate. The resulting surface runoff is measured and the infiltration capacity of the soil is determined.
v. Hydrograph analysis. By knowing accurately the varying intensities of rainfall during a storm and the
continuous record of the resulting runoff, the infiltration capacity can be
vi. Double-ring infiltrometer.

The two rings (22.5 to 90 cm diameter) are driven into the ground by a driving plate and hammer, to penetrate
the soil uniformly without tilt or undue disturbance of the soil surface to a depth of 15 cm. After driving is over,
any disturbed soil adjacent to the sides tamped with a metal tamper. Point gauges are fixed in the centre of the
rings and in the annular space between the two rings. Water is poured into the rings to maintain the desired
depth (2.5 to 15 cm with a minimum of 5 mm) and the water added to maintain the original constant depth at
regular time intervals (after the commencement of the experiment) of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 min, etc. up to a
period of at least 6 hours is noted and the results are plotted as infiltration rate in cm/hr versus time in minutes
as shown in Fig. 6.3.2. The purpose of the outer tube is to eliminate to some extent the edge effect of the

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surrounding drier soil and to prevent the water within the inner space from spreading over a larger area after
penetrating below the bottom of the ring.

Capillary Water
Estimating capillary water
Recall the characteristic curve. Fine-grained materials remain saturated by capillary forces to lower pressures;
they tend to have thicker capillary fringes as a result. At very low pressures, the water content becomes almost
constant despite further reductions in pressure. This is because the water forms a thin film that is tightly bound
by forces of attraction between water molecules and the mineral surfaces. At this lower bound value of θ is at
field capacity.
Example: Assume that the silt loam of the characteristic curve straddles the water table and that there is no
vertical flow of water (hydrostatic conditions). Estimate the thickness of the capillary fringe and estimate the
water content 2m above the water table.
At the water table, P = 0 and head equals elevation: h = zwt . Because of hydrostatic conditions,
the head at every elevation is h = zwt . using the definition of hydraulic head, the pressure head
at any level is then:
𝑃
= ℎ − 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑤𝑡 − 𝑧 = −(𝑧 − 𝑧𝑤𝑡 )
𝜌𝑤 𝑔

Therefore, with hydrostatic conditions, the pressure head equals minus the height above the water table. The
top of the capillary fringe corresponds to the transition from saturated to less than saturated soil, a transition
occurs at a pressure head of 𝑃⁄𝜌𝑤 𝑔 ≈ −65 𝑐𝑚 from the characteristic curve. It follows that the thickness of
the capillary fringe is about 65 cm.

A location 2 m above the water table will have a pressure head of -2 m = −200 cm. From the characteristic
curve, the water content at this pressure head is θ ≈ 0.18.

Tutorials
1. What are the factors affecting infiltration?
2. Describe the methods used to estimate infiltration
3. Describe the methods used to estimate capillary water
4. An infiltrometer is used to determine the infiltration capacity of clay soil. The experiment lasted 120
minutes. During the experiment, water was added to maintain a constant water level in the ring. The total
volume of water added is tabulated below. The area of the ring is 600 cm2.
a. Compute for each time interval the infiltration capacity in cm/hr.
b. Plot the infiltration capacity (cm/hr) versus time (minutes).
c. Estimate the ultimate value of the infiltration capacity
Time (minutes) 0 1 3 5 10 20 40 60 90 120
Volume added since the start (cm3) 0 60 162 252 427 657 837 957 1122 1272

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13 Hydrology

5. The relation between infiltration capacity in mm/hour and the time (in hours) since the start of the
experiment as measured with an infiltrometer is depicted below. The relationship may be described
with the empirical formula of Horton where fp, fc and fo in mm/h, t in min. and k in min-1.
a. Derive the parameter values fo, fc and k from the measured relationship.
b. Estimate from the graph below the total amount of water that will infiltrate into the soil during a
rainstorm with a duration of 20 minutes and a constant intensity of 20 mm/h.
c. Answer the same question for a constant rainfall intensity of 12 mm/h.

6. Explain why pore water pressures in the unsaturated zone are less than atmospheric pressure.
7. A tensiometer is installed in the unsaturated zone at an elevation of 231.49 m. The pressure measured there
is −6, 800 N/m2. Right next to the tensiometer (in map view), there is an observation well open at elevation
228.25 m. The water level in the well is at an elevation of 230.54 m.
a. What is the head at the tensiometer?
b. What is the vertical hydraulic gradient ∂h/∂z between the tensiometer and the well?
c. Is there an upward or downward component to flow here?
d. If the soil at the tensiometer were the fine sand illustrated in the characteristic curve what would the
water content be at the tensiometer?
8. Consider a profile of the silt loam soil shown in characteristic curves. The water content θ in this soil varies
linearly from 0.20 just below the topsoil (elevation 110.0 m) to 0.45 at elevation 108.2 m. Make scaled plots
that show water content vs. elevation, pore water pressure P vs. elevation, and head h vs. elevation. Is the
flow upward or downward in this section of soil?

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