CEC 208 LECTURE NOTES 2

INTERRELATION OF SOIL – MOISTURE AND PLANT

MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS
The movement of water in the soil controls not only the rate of infiltration but also the supply of
moisture to plants roots and the rate of underground flow to springs and streams and recharge of
ground water. Water in the liquid phase flows through the soil filled pore space under the
influence of gravity.
In the films of surrounding soil particles (under unsaturated conditions, it moves under the
influence of surface tension forces). Water also diffuses as vapour through air-filled pore spaces
along gradients of decreasing vapour pressure. In all cases, the movement is along gradients of
decreasing water potential.
In dealing with the movement of the water into the soils, the following terminologies are very
important to be considered.
Water Intake
The movement of irrigation water from the soil surface into and through the soil. It is the
expression of several factors including infiltration and percolation.

Soil Permeability and Infiltration

A measure of the ability of air and water to move through soil is its permeability. It is influenced
by the size, shape and continuity of the pore spaces, which in turn are dependent on the soil bulk
density, structure and texture.
Most soil series are assigned to a single permeability class. However, soil series with contrasting
textures in the soil profile are assigned to more than one permeability class. In most cases, soils
with a slow, very slow, rapid or very rapid permeability classification are considered poor for
irrigation.
Infiltration is the downward flow of water from the surface through the soil. The infiltration rate
(sometimes called intake rate) of a soil is a measure of its ability to absorb an amount of rain or
irrigation water during a given time period. It commonly is expressed in mm per hour. It is
dependent on the permeability of the surface soil, moisture content of the soil and surface
conditions such as roughness (tillage and plant residue), slope and plant cover.

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Coarse-textured soils, such as sands and gravel, usually have high infiltration rates. The
infiltration rate of medium- and fine-textured soils, such as loams, silts and clays, is lower than
coarse-textured soils and is influenced by the stability of the soil aggregates.
Water and plant nutrient losses may be greater on coarse-textured soils. Thus, the timing and
quantity of chemical and irrigation water applications is particularly critical on these soils.
Percolation is the down ward movement of water through saturated or nearly saturated soil in
response to the force of gravity. Percolation is synonymous with infiltration rate with the
qualitative provision of saturated or nearly conditions.
The water intake differs from the soil type and different soils absorb water at different rates.
Seepage is the infiltration (vertically) down ward and lateral movement of water into soil or sub
strata from a source of supply such as a reservoir or irrigation.
Such water may reappear at the surface as wet spots or seeps or may percolate to join ground
water or may join the sub surface flow to springs or streams. Seepage rate depends on the wetted
perimeter of the reservoir or the canal and the capacity of the soil to conduct water both
vertically and horizontally.

MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE

The importance of the moisture content in the soil in relation to plant growth has resulted in the
development of many methods for measuring soil moisture.
Soil moisture measurements are important in the suitable scheduling of irrigation and estimating
the amount of water required to irrigate a land. Measurement of changes in soil moisture storage
with time is important in estimating evapo-transpiration.
Field capacity: This is the moisture content of an initially saturated soil after all the gravitational
water has drain out. It is regarded as the storage capacity of the soil for irrigation purposes.
Wilting point- This is the minimum moisture content of the soil at which roots of plants can no
longer extract water from the soil and the plant “wilts” and may die if water is not added to the
soil.
Available water = (Fc – Wp) %: this is soil moisture between field capacity and permanent
wilting point, and it is also referred to as readily available moisture. It is the moisture available
for plant use.

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CLASSES AND AVAILABLE OF SOIL WATER
Water present in the soil may be classified under three heads, because some moisture is not
available to the plant.
 Hygroscopic water
 Capillary water
 Gravitational water

GRAVITATION WATER
This occupies the larger pores of the soil and drains away under the influence of gravity. The
upper limit of gravitational water is when the soil is saturated, that is, when the pores are
completely filled with water.
Gravitational water drains from the root zone unless prevented by a barrier such as head – pan or
a high water table. This process takes less than one day for coarse sandy and three to four days
for a heavy clay soil. Because of the relatively rapid disappearance of this drainable water, it is
not normally included in the amount available to plants, but some allowance in the calculation of
an irrigation cycle should be allowed for the time taken for the soil to drain to the gravity limit.
CAPILLARY WATER
Capillary water is that held by surface tension in the pores between the particles. The upper limit
is when all the gravitational water has drained away: Soil in this state is said to be at field
capacity, which is normally taken as the upper limit to the water available to the plant.
HYGROSCOPIC WATER
This water is held as a very thin film round the soil particle, and is held so firmly that it is
unavailable to the plant except perhaps in extreme cases of drought.
The figure below shows the schematic of classes of soil water.

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Figure 1: classes of soil water

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 IRRIGATION

Definition of Irrigation
Irrigation is defined as the process of artificial application of water to the soil for the growth of
agricultural crops. It is the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources
of water, by the construction of dams and reservoirs, canals and head works; and finally
distributing the water to the agricultural fields to protect the crops from bad effect of drought or
low rainfall. Irrigation engineering includes the study and design of works in connection with
river control, drainage of water logged areas, and generation of hydro electric power.

Necessity of Irrigation
For the growth of plant/crops, adequate quantity and quality of water is required in the root zone
of the plant. However, during sometimes in the period of plant growth, there could be an
inadequate water to fulfill the crop water requirements. This may be due some of the following:
a) Insufficient rainfall: when the seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum requirement
for the satisfactory growth of crops, the irrigation becomes essential.
b) Uneven distribution of rainfall: when the rainfall is not evenly distributed during the
crop period or throughout the cultivatable area, it is necessary to supplement the water
available for plant growth.
c) Improvement of perennial crops yield: some crops such as sugarcane etc require water
almost throughout the year but rainfall can only fulfill the demand for some months.
Therefore, for the remaining months of the year irrigation is necessary.
d) Development of agriculture in the desert areas: in the desert area where the rainfall is
very scanty, irrigation is required for the development of agriculture.
e) Insurance against drought: irrigation may not be required during the normal rainfall
condition and can be necessary during drought.

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BENEFITS AND ILL EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION
Benefits of irrigation
a) Provision of employment: During the execution of irrigation works, employment is
given to the people especially the locals and this provides a mean of livelihood to them.
b) Increased food production: availability of water throughout the year greatly increases
agricultural productivity.
c) Cultivation of cash crops: Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops such as sugar
cane, tobacco cotton, etc.
d) Addition to the wealth of the country: The water tax obtained from farmer, the bumper
crops produced due to irrigation makes country self – sufficient in food requirements and
this serves as a means of foreign exchange and therefore increases revenue.
e) Improving the living standard of people: The increase in the crop yield, the growing of
cash crops makes the formers to prosper and their living standard is also improved.
f) Generation of Hydro Electric Power: Majority of large river valley projects are usually
planned to provide hydro – electric power together with irrigation. Also, falls on the
irrigation channels can be utilised to generate electricity which may help in the
development of rural communities.
g) Domestic and industrial water supply: Irrigation systems can serve as a source of water
for domestic houses and for industries.
h) Inland navigation: It can be use a means of transporting the people and agricultural
products.
i) Improvement in the Ground water storage: Due to constant percolation and seepage of
water, the ground water table is raised in the area where irrigation facilities are prevalent.
j) Provision of social amenities: Due to the increased yield and value of the crop, means of
communication such as roadways, railways and post and telegraph facilities are
introduced. Schools, hospitals and other facilities are also provided.
Ill-effects of Irrigation
The uses of irrigated agriculture have the following ill effects if not properly managed:
a) Raising of water Table
b) Formation of marshy area
c) Dampness of weather

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 d) Loss of soil fertility
e) Soil erosion
f) Production of harmful gases
g) Loss of valuable lands
h) Flooding risk

SOURCES OF IRRIGATION WATER

Most of sources of irrigation water are from surface water or ground water which can either be
river, canal, Tank, open well or tube water well.
All the sources of water contain some soluble salt which always dissolved in them.
The main source of irrigation water includes;
i. Rainfall
iii. Flood water
iv. Ground water
v. Snow
vi. Waste water

STANDARDS FOR IRRIGATION WATER

Irrigation water maybe said to be unsatisfactory for its intended use if it contain:-
i. Chemicals toxic to plants or the person using plant as food
ii. Chemicals which react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture characteristics.
iii. Bacteria injurious to persons or animal eating plant irrigated with the water.

QUALITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION

The term quality as applied to water, embraces its combined physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. The quality of water for irrigation is as important as nature of soil.
Good quality water improves the soil because of it calcium content, conversely, if water applied
for irrigation is not of the desired quality, the soil deteriorates and crop yield decreases. The
suitability of water for irrigating a particular crop grown on a particular soil require consideration
of the following;
i. Sodium and calcium salt dissolved in it
ii. Its pH

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 iii. Texture of soil and salts present in it.
iv. Sensitivity of crop and drainage conditions of soil.

Nearly all waters contain dissolved salts and trace elements, many of which result from the
natural weathering of the earth’s surface. In addition, drainage waters from irrigated lands and
effluent from city sewage and industrial waste water can impact water quality. In most irrigation
situations, the primary water quality concern is salinity levels, since salts can affect both the soil
structure and crop yield. However, a number of trace elements are found in water which can limit
its use for irrigation.
Most salinity problems in agriculture result directly from the salts carried in the irrigation water.
Salts as well as other dissolved substances begin to accumulate as water evaporates from the
surface and as crops withdraw water.
Water in streams in humid areas is generally suitable for irrigation. Streams in industrial
locations are, however, polluted with industrial waste rendering it unsuitable for irrigation.
Irrigation water is generally obtained from rivers, canals, reservoirs, ground water, and tanks.
Reservoirs yield better quality water than rivers because of beneficial effects of impoundment.
However, water quality characteristic depends on the source and storage.

PROBLEMS OF USING POOR QUALITY IRRIGATION WATER

The following are the most common problems that result from using poor quality irrigation
water.
i. Salinity: - A salinity problem related to water quality occurs if the total quantity of salts
in the irrigation water is high enough for the salts to accumulate in the crop root zone to
the extent that fields are affected. If excessive quantities of soluble salts accumulate in
the root zone, the crop has difficulty in extracting enough water from the salty soil
solution.
ii. Permeability:- A permeability problem related to water quality occur when the rate of
water infiltration into and through the soil is reduced by the effect of specific salts or lack
of salts in the water to such an extent that the crop is not adequately supplied with water
and yield is reduced. The poor soil permeability makes it more difficult to supply the crop
with water and may greatly add to cropping difficulties through crushing of seed beds,

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 water logging of surface soil and accompanying disease, salinity, weed, oxygen and
nutritional problems.
iii. Toxicity: - A toxicity problem occurs when certain constituent in the water are taken up
by the crop and accumulate in amounts that result in reduced yield. This is usually related
to one or more specific ions in water, namely, boron, chloride and sodium.
iv. Other problems:- Various other problem related to irrigation water quality occur; these
include among others excessive vegetative growth, water lodging, delayed crop maturity
resulting from excessive nitrogen in the water, white deposits on fruit or leaves due to
sprinkle irrigation with high bicarbonate and abnormalities due to an usual pH of the
irrigation water.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation water may be supplied to crops by flooding it on the field surface, by applying below
the soil surface, or by spraying it under pressure. The common methods of irrigation are
indicated below.

SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS

In the surface methods of irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel
located at the upper reach of the field. The surface irrigation application methods are classified
as:
 Wild flooding,
 Check basins,
 Borders and
 Furrows

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 1. Wild flooding

In this method, ditches are excavated in the field, and they may be either on the contour or up
and down the slope. Water from these ditches, flows across the field since the movement of
water is not restricted, it is called wild flooding. Although the initial costs of land preparation is
low, labor requirement are usually high and application efficiency is low. Wild flooding is most
suitable to close growing crops, pastures, etc. Contour ditches called laterals or subsidiary
ditches are generally spaced at about 20 to 50 meters apart depending upon the slope, soil
texture, crops to be grown etc. This method may be used on lands that have irregular topography,
where borders, basins and furrows are not feasible.

2. Check basin irrigation

Basin irrigation uses generally a level area surrounded by ridges (bounds, dikes) to guide water
as it flows from one end to the other to prevent from leaving the field. A basin is typically square
in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular (small or large) configurations. The
flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin approximately 60 to 75 percent of the
time required for the soil to absorb the desired amount of water.

Basin irrigation can be used to apply prescribed application depths at design efficiencies of more
than 90%. Basin irrigation is suited to different crops, such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts etc. and
to soils of moderate to low intake rate (50 mm/h or less) having smooth, gentle and uniform land
slopes. The method is especially adapted to irrigation of grain and fodder crops in heavy soils
where water is absorbed very slowly and is required to stand for a relatively long time to ensure
adequate irrigation.

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Advantages of check basin

 It is suited to smooth gentle and uniform land slope and for soils having moderate to slow
infiltration rates
 It is also suitable in very permeable soils which must be covered with water rapidly to
prevent excessive deep percolation losses at the upstream end.
 The method enables the conservation of rainfall and reduction in soil erosion by retaining
a large part of the rain in the basin to be infiltrated gradually without loss due to surface
run off.

Disadvantages of check basin

 The ridges interfere with the movement of animal drawn or tractor-drawn implements
for inter-culture or harvesting of crops.
 Considerable land is occupied by ridges and lateral field channel and crop yields are
substantially low on the ridge and in the lateral channels.
 The method impedes surface drainage.
 Labour requirement in land preparation and irrigation is much higher compare to other
methos
 The method is not suitable for irrigated crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions
around the stems of plant.

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 3. Border irrigation

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth rides to guide a sheet of flowing water across a
field. The land between two levees is called a border strip, simply called a border. Border strips,
like basins, can be described as rectangular channels (narrow or wide) in which the width of flow
plays a dominant role in affecting the geometric elements of the channel. The border strip may
vary from 3 to 30 meters in width and from 100 to 800 meters in length. Border irrigation is a
more controlled version of wild flooding with additional field ditches that serve as supply
sources for applying water to the field. The figure below shows the border strip method.

Advantages of border method

 Border ridges can be constructed economically with simple farm implements.

 Labour requirement is greatly reduced as compared to the conventional check basin
method.
 Uniform distribution and high water application efficiencies are possible if the system is
properly designed.
 Large irrigation streams are efficiently used.
 Operation of the system is simple and easy

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 4. Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation refers to water that is discharged into and runs down small sloping channels
(called furrows or corrugations) which are cut or pressed into the soil. The two most common
furrow irrigation systems are the straight furrow irrigation and graded furrow irrigation. Water
infiltrates from the bottom and sides of furrows moving laterally downward to wet the soil and to
move soluble salts, fertilizers and herbicides carried in the water.

When properly designed and operated, furrow irrigation systems may result in a good
performance. Most crops would be irrigated by the furrow method and is best suited to medium
to moderately fine textured soils with relatively high water holding capacity and conductivity,
which allow significant water movement in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
Advantages of furrow irrigation
 Water in the furrows contacts only a fraction of the land surface there by reducing
pudding, and crusting of the soil, evaporation losses.
 Earlier cultivation is possible which a distinct advantage in heavy soils.
 There is no wastage of land in making field ditches.
 Labour requirements in land preparation and irrigation are very much reduced.
 It is especially suitable for those crops (like maze etc) that are injured by contact with
water

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SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to the surface of the soil in the form of a spray,
which is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air
through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops, which fall to the ground. The pump
supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform
application of water. The greatest advantage of sprinkler irrigation is it adaptabilities to use
under conditions where surface irrigation methods are not efficient.

Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Some of the conditions, which favor sprinkler irrigation, are as follows.
 Soils too porous for good distribution by surface methods
 Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper leveling for surface
irrigation methods
 Land having steep slopes and easily erodible soils
 Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by surface irrigation
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good surface irrigation
 Land needs to be brought in to top production quality. Sprinkler systems can be
designed and installed quickly
 Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted crops, which require
frequent irrigation.
 Higher application efficiency can be achieved by properly designed and operated
systems.
Other uses of Sprinkler irrigation
Sprinkler systems have several secondary agricultural uses, which are important in addition to
the primary use for distributing irrigation water to be stored in the soil. Light frequent irrigations
so easily managed by using sprinklers, are helpful in many situations, such as, shallow rooted
crops, germination of new plants, control of soil temperature and humidity.
The other uses of sprinkler irrigation are:

 Frost protection

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  Application of fertilizers, pesticides and soil amendments
 Crop cooling

Disadvantages of sprinkler Irrigation:

 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water
 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water
 Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amount of dissolved
salts
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation
 High power requirements
 Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate cannot be irrigated efficiently in
hot windy areas
SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION

It is irrigated by water movement upward from a water table located some distance below the
soil surface. Inherent advantages make controlled sub-irrigation preferable. The advantages are
the avoidance of the evaporative losses of open water or wet soil surfaces and the elimination of
the impedance caused to cultivation by pipes and ditches.

The sub-surface irrigation is classified into two:-

i. Natural sub- Surface irrigation: it is so called because the conditions which make it possible
are geological and topographical. These are near level terrain, and a deep top soil of very high
lateral permeability under laid at 2m to 7 depth by an impermeable stratum. If the area with this
soil profile is sufficiently expansive, it constitutes a convenient underground reservoir which can
be replenished by spreader ditchers and wells. A constant check is kept on the water table at
representative points in the irrigation area, and losses, comprising of consumptive use by
vegetation and net seepage outflow, are replaced by supply.

ii. Artificial sub-surface irrigation: This involves the use of a system of buried perforated pipes
through which water is passed at pressure to percolate into the soils.

This method will only function effectively if the soil has high horizontal and low vertical
permeability. Systems of this type require pipes at spacing as low as 450mm and depths in the

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region of 500mm. They are expensive and liable to be damaged by deep cultivation. In operation
they require the maintenance of pressure by pumping or gravity from an elevated storage.

DRIP IRRIGATION
In drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, water is applied in the form of drops directly
near the base of the plant. Water is conveyed through a system of flexible pipe lines, operating at
low pressure, and is applied to the plant through drip nozzles. The system permits the fine
control on the application of moisture and nutrients at stated frequencies.
Along with irrigation water, nutrients (fertilizer solutions) are also fed to the system. Water is
first filtered so that the impurities may not clog the fine holes of the drippers.
ADVANTAGE OF DRIP IRRIGATION
 Less requirement of irrigation water.
 Water logging avoided
 Cultivation of cash crops
 No over irrigation
 Reduced labour cost
 Nutrients preservation
 Suitable for any topography
DISADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION
 High initial cost
 Danger of Blockade of nozzles

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHOD
The choice of irrigation methods is based on technical feasibility and economics. Surface
methods are generally the cheapest to install, and where conditions are suitable there is little
point in considering other methods.
However, where high value cash crops are to be grown there may be economic justification for
considering other types of irrigation, especially where conditions are not ideal for surface
irrigation.
a. Land preparation: Surface irrigation requires uniform slope which are not too steep. Unless
terracing is to be carried out, an expensive process, steep slope probably preclude surface
irrigation in favour of sprinkler or trickle irrigation.
The uniformity of the land surface is also important. For efficient irrigation by a surface method,
slopes must be uniform with no high or low spots. To accomplish this, land grading is required,
the extent of which depends on the natural topography.
It should be noted that land grading may be an expensive operation, and therefore in some cases,
it may be cheaper to install sprinklers..
b. Variability of soil type: The soil types in the irrigation area also affect the choice of method.
Soils with low available water require frequent light irrigation which is difficult with surface
methods. Soils with a high infiltration rate tend to waste water because of percolation below the
rooting range unless surface irrigation run are very short. The short runs increase labour costs,
waste land because of the number of canals required and produce mechanization difficulties.
Soil variability causes difficulties for engineers scheduling irrigation, especially if more than one
type of soil is present in one field. Therefore in this type of condition sprinkler and trickle
irrigation designs can easily be adapted to suit areas of variable soil type.
c. Water quantity and quality: The amount, quality and cost of the water supply also have
some bearing on the irrigation method. Where the flow of water is small, surface irrigation is
often uneconomic if possible at all, although the effective flow can be increase by providing farm
storage during periods when irrigation is not being practiced e.g. at night. If the total quantity of
the water is small, then it must be used with the highest efficiency. High efficiencies are not
generally attained with surface methods unless design, operation and management are of a high
standard and distribution canal are lined. Sprinklers and trickle irrigation generally have a much
higher efficiency than surface methods.

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Where sediment is in water and the water contains objectionable matter, for example sewage,
then sprinkler and trickle irrigation cannot be chosen.
d. Climate: Winds in excess of 15 to 20km/h generally make sprinkler unsuitable as the smaller
droplet are blown away and the water application pattern is distorted resulting in low
efficiencies. High temperatures and low humidity reduce sprinkling efficiencies, but sprays; by
lowering the atmospheric water demand, can alleviate water stress in the plant and increase
growth. Heavy rain after irrigation by surface method can result in flooding.
e. Crop: The type of crop being irrigated has little effect technically on the choice of a surface or
sprinkler method. Tall crops are difficult to work in and thus the movement of pipes and
sprinklers can be difficult.

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