 Groundwater exploration investigation requires a thorough appreciation of the

hydrology and geology of the area concerned, and a groundwater inventory needs to
determine possible gains and losses affecting the subsurface reservoir. Of particular
interest are the lithology, stratigraphical sequence and geological structure, and
hydrological properties of sub-surface materials. Ground exploration is a typical
work of a hydrologist or engineer. Identifying the location of its availability is a
challenging task. Groundwater exploration is attempted through direct or indirect
methods. Test drilling is a straightforward method for finding a resource. This is an
expensive business. During the last two centuries, more and more techniques have
been developed to explore the groundwater. The main objective of these surveys is to
study and understand the hydrological cycle of the region, to have an overall concept
about the type, nature & number of aquifers, the quality of ground water.
 The surface methods are easy to operate and implement. These require minimum
facilities like topo-sheets, maps, reports, some field measurements and
interpretations of data in the laboratories. The surface methods of groundwater
exploration include the following:
 – Esoteric Methods
 – Geomorphologic methods
 – Geological & structural Methods
 – Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
 – Surface Geophysical Methods
 The subsurface methods of groundwater exploration includes both Test Drilling &

Borehole Geophysical Logging techniques. When compared to the surface

methods, the subsurface methods are very expensive. These are done for
government level projects where large scale investigations are carried out to
ascertain the results of surface surveys. The subsurface methods are very accurate
methods as the help in direct observations of features in the form of bore-hole
lithologs as core samples and also geophysical measurements of formation
properties.
 Esoteric methods are primitive methods. These are the oldest water partitioning
methods practiced by ancient people for many centuries. They are also called water-
dosing. People believed that groundwater flow would induce some major currents
above the surface. When the wet plant twig is moved over such zones, it also turns
the twig.
 Wet twigs of trees, husked coconuts, watches, and other materials are used as dosing
materials. The person who handles the twig has some provocative character and
therefore it does not apply to everyone who tries to divine water. All these methods
have been practiced since the 17th century.
 There are no scientific explanations available for these methods. The probability of
success is just a coin-throwing experiment. These methods are known as water
divining.
 Surface drainage is subordinate to topography. It is dominated by basement rocks.
Most often, groundwater flows coincide with surface drainage. Streams and water
bodies can be controlled by some underlying structures. Junctions of streams on the
lower slopes are promising areas for groundwater. Geomorphologies originate from
several geological processes.
 Some of them are likely to contain relatively permeable seams. Modern alluvial
terraces, floodplains, stratified valley filling in abandoned channels, glacier outflow,
and moraine deposits are good forms of groundwater. Alluvial fans, beach lines,
partially drift valleys, sand dunes, moisture depressions, and marshy environments
are great places.
 The geological investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and interpretation
of hydrology of existing topographic maps, aerial photographs, geological maps
and records, and other related documents.
 This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field reconnaissance
and by evaluation of available hydrologic data on streamflow and springs, well
yields, groundwater recharge, discharge, and levels, and water quality.
 In some places, drainage can be completely controlled by the presence of small
and major structures, such as joints, defects, and lines. These zones are good and
potential zones for groundwater exploration. These are groundwater flow paths.
 Contact points is in between permeable water-bearing strata overlying relatively
impermeable strata usually along the sides of valleys that cut across the interface
between different strata are suitable locations for groundwater.
 Hills, valleys, and springs at or near the base of native scarps are indicators of
groundwater occurrence on the hillsides. Dykes are good barriers to arresting
groundwater flow.
 Analyzing the location of the dykes and their dip and strike helps to select
potential groundwater potential zones on the upstream side.
 Exploring groundwater by the method of geophysics is called groundwater geophysics.
Geophysical research is conducted on the Earth’s surface to explore groundwater
resources by observing certain physical parameters such as density, velocity,
conductivity, etc.Resistance, magnetic, electromagnetic, and radioactive phenomena.
 Geophysical methods involve the measurement of signals by natural or induced
phenomena of physical properties of the sub-surface structure. Methods of terrestrial
physics detect variations or anomalies of physical properties within the Earth’s crust.
 Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are commonly measured
properties. The purpose of the quest is to find indirect indicators and to identify
potential zones of exploitation.
 The main geological methods that can be used to solve some of the hydrological
problems are electricity, earthquake, gravity and magnetic methods.
 This is a widely used geological method for determining mineral resources and
groundwater in sedimentary terrain.
 Gravimeters are used in this method to measure the density differences on the
Earth’s surface, which indicate the underlying geological structures. This method is
expensive and because the variations in the water content on the surface involve
measurable differences in the specific gravity of the surface, the gravity method
has little application to groundwater expectancy.
 Under special geological conditions such as a large burial valley, the total
configuration of aquifers can be determined by gravity differences.
 The magnetic method allows the detection of Earth’s magnetic fields, which can be
measured and mapped. Magnetometers are instruments used to measure magnetic
fields and differences.
 Since magnetic contrast is rarely associated with the occurrence of groundwater,
this method has little relevance for exploring groundwater. Indirect information for
groundwater studies, such as the presence of dykes that form the aquifer
boundaries or the limits of basaltic flow, can be obtained by this method.
 Seismic modes are two types of seismic refraction and reflection methods. The
seismic refraction method involves the creation of a small shock on the surface of
the earth under the influence of heavy equipment or a small explosive charge and
measuring the time required to travel the known sound, or shock, at a distance
known to the wave.
 Earthquake waves follow the laws of propagation similar to light rays and can be
reflected or refracted at the interface where the velocity changes. Seismic
reflection methods provide information on geologic formation thousands of meters
below the surface, but seismic refraction methods of interest in groundwater
studies go only 100 meters deep.
 The travel time of an earthquake wave depends on the medium through which it
passes. Velocities are high in solid igneous rocks and in non-consolidated
materials. Based on these instructions, it is possible to delineate the sub-surface
zones of fractures, cracks, defects, and lines.
 When drilling equipment is available, it is very tempting to get right to work
drilling wells. However, wells should be carefully sited so that drilling only occurs
where there is a high probability of successfully penetrating into water-bearing
formations and the wells can be effectively used, maintained, and protected from
contamination. While every borehole will not result in a good well, advanced
planning with the community will maximize the number of successful wells and
minimize drilling costs.
 In order to successfully site water wells, those involved must know something about
the places where underground water occurs and how it got there.
 The location of a well is mainly determined by the well’s purpose. For drinking and

irrigation water-production wells, groundwater quality and long-term groundwater

supply are the most important considerations. The hydrogeological assessment to
determine whether and where to locate a well should always be done by a
knowledgeable driller or professional consultant. The water quality criteria to use for
drinking water wells are the applicable local or state drinking water quality
standards. For irrigation wells, the primary chemical parameters of concern are
salinity and boron and the sodium-adsorption ratio.
 Subsurface conditions (Groundwater Depth, Quantity & Quality)
 Subsurface soil types
 Vegetation
 Topography
 Surface water
 Sources of contamination
 Accessibility to users
 Where dug wells exist, it is possible to determine the depth to water, geology and
expected water quantity and quality. The history of old wells will indicate how far
down the water table drops during dry seasons and will indicate how deep new
wells must be. In general, the mud rotary drill rig should only be used in areas
where people are getting their water from hand dug water wells (less than 40
meters deep). Only after numerous water wells are drilled this way should drilling
be attempted in areas where little information is available or where subsurface
conditions (impermeable clay, hard rock, etc.) have prevented the construction of
hand dug water wells.
 The amount of water supplied by an aquifer (water bearing formation) is as
important as its quality. The only way to know exactly how much water is available
is by pumping wells. However, a rough estimate of yield can be made by
identifying the soil and rock which comprise the aquifer. Most sand and gravel
deposits contain significant amounts of drinking water. However, the amount of
water which can actually be pumped depends on how thick these deposits are and
their permeability (how easy it is for water to flow through it). In general, the larger
the grain size and the thicker the deposit, the higher the yield of the aquifer. Wells
constructed in silt or clay soils will have very low yields regardless of how they are
constructed. To compensate for this, large diameter water wells should be carefully
dug so that large volumes of water can slowly accumulate in the well casing over
time and provide sufficient quantities when required. Finally, limestone, sandstone
or quartzitic rock may also yield adequate quantities of water. Best yields are found
where there is a thick zone of weathered rock with many cracks (fractures). In
general, fine grained rocks, such as shale, do not serve as productive aquifers.
 During the dry season, survey for indications of groundwater by looking at the
alignment of ant mounds and green vegetation in the midst of an arid landscape.
Annual plants, such as grasses and ferns, are not good indicators because they
come and go with the seasons. However, year-round reeds and broad leaf trees and
shrubs like cedar and willow tend to grow where water is close to the surface.
Some water indicator trees in West Africa are Daniella (Daniella olivieri), Kapok
(Ceiba pentandra) and Baobao (Adansonia digitata)
 The water table commonly follows the land surface. While the lowest areas (valley
bottoms or depressions where water accumulates after rains) are generally the
best places to drill, ensure that the site has good access, is not subject to flooding
and is not close to where contaminated surface water ponds. The presence of water
bearing fracture zones may be detected by surface features such as shallow linear
depressions and abrupt changes in valley alignment. Often these features are
difficult to see in the field but become apparent when viewed from the air.
 Successful wells are often drilled near rivers; groundwater may be available even if
the river is temporarily dry. Reliable wells have even been located near broad
sandy riverbeds which are active once every 5-10 years. Water taken from wells
located at least 15 m from a river is usually cleaner and cooler than water taken
from the river. If the well water remains turbid after construction, the soils may be
providing inadequate filtration and contaminated river water may be entering the
well.
 Look for springs since they indicate the presence of a water bearing formation
(aquifer). A well can often be successfully drilled just uphill of the spring. Animal
trails often lead to seeps and springs.
 Well water should be tested to ensure that it is free from disease-causing
organisms. Also, if it is not clear and good tasting, people may revert to traditional
unsafe drinking water supplies. Therefore, avoid drilling in areas where unsuitable
quality water is known to occur and keep wells as far away as possible from
potential sources of pollution.
 Minimum Separation Distances from Contaminant Sources

Distance(m) Possible Source of Contamination

100 Garbage dumps/refuse piles, car repair or fuel (petrol) sales outlets,
industrial operations/storage facilities etc.

50 Seepage pit or cesspool

30 Pit toilets, animal pens, barns, fields fertilized with dung

15 Septic tank, surface water body

7 Drain, ditch, house
 Wells should be as close as possible to houses because people use a lot less water
if wells are located far from their home. This means that the most significant
benefits (arising from increased water consumption) occur when water wells
replace old water sources which were further than one kilometer away. Ensure that
the site is accessible year-round and that the access route to the water well is not
susceptible to flooding. Finally, ensure that the site has legal access which is
acceptable to users from a societal standpoint. Having a water well on someone's
property enhances its value and therefore a formal arrangement for access needs
to be clearly made before the well is drilled
 Artificial recharge is the process of spreading or impounding water on the land to
increase the infiltration through the soil and percolation to the aquifer or of
injecting water by wells directly into the aquifer. Surface infiltration systems can be
used to recharge unconfined aquifers only. Confined aquifers can be recharged
with wells that penetrate the aquifer. Well recharge is also used for unconfined
aquifers if suitable land for infiltration systems is not available.
 Artificial recharge can be done using any surplus surface water. When low quality
water is used for recharge, the underground formations can act as natural filters to
remove many physical, biological, and chemical pollutants from the water as it
moves through. Often, the quality improvement of the water is actually the main
objective of recharge, and the system is operated specifically using the soil and the
aquifer to provide additional treatment to the source water. Systems used in this
way are called soil-aquifer treatment (SAT), or geopurification, systems.
 In most low rainfall areas of the country the availability of utilizable surface water is
so low that people have to depend largely on ground water for agriculture and
domestic use. Excessive ground water pumping in these areas, has resulted in
alarming lowering of the ground water levels. The problem has been further
compounded due to large-scale urbanization and growth of mega cities, which has
drastically reduced open lands for natural recharge.
 The water found in aquifers is replenished by drainage through the soil, which is often a slow
process. This drainage is referred to as groundwater recharge. Rates of groundwater recharge
are greatest when rainfall inputs to the soil exceed evapotranspiration losses. When the water
table is deep underground, the water of the aquifer may be exceedingly old, possibly a result of
a past climatic regime. A good example is the water of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System,
which extends through several countries in an area that is now the Sahara. The water is being
used extensively for water supply and irrigation purposes.
 In many aquifers, groundwater levels have fallen drastically in recent times. This is commonly
due to the diversion of above ground water sources as well as to excessive
groundwater mining for irrigation and other uses. Such depletion increases pumping costs,
causes wells and rivers to dry up, and, where a coastal aquifer is in hydraulic contact with
seawater, can cause the intrusion of saline water. Attempts have been made to augment recharge
by the use of wastewaters and the ponding of excess river flows.
 Where ground water levels are declining due to over-exploitation
 Where substantial part of the aquifer has already been desaturated i.e.
regeneration of water in wells and hand pumps is slow after some water has been
drawn
 Where availability of water from wells and hand pumps is inadequate during the
lean months
 Where ground water quality is poor and there is no alternative source of water
 Augmentation of ground water reservoir by modifying the natural movement of
surface water utilizing suitable civil construction techniques.
 To enhance the sustainable yield in areas where over-development has depleted
the aquifer.
 Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements, since
these requirements often changes within a season or a period.
 To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
 To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so
that water is suitable for re-use. The basic purpose of artificial recharge of ground
water is to restore supplies from aquifers depleted due to excessive ground water
development.
 Precipitation (rainfall) over the demarcated area
 Large roof areas from where rainwater can be collected and diverted for recharge
 Canals from large reservoirs from which water can be made available for recharge
 Natural streams from which surplus water can be diverted for recharge, without
violating the rights of other users
 Properly treated municipal and industrial wastewaters. This water should be used
only after ascertaining its quality
 No large storage structures needed to store water. Structures required are small
and cost-effective
 Enhance the dependable yield of wells and hand pumps
 Negligible losses as compared to losses in surface storages
 Improved water quality due to dilution of harmful chemicals/ salts
 No adverse effects like inundation of large surface areas and loss of crops
 No displacement of local population
 Reduction in cost of energy for lifting water especially where rise in ground water
 level is substantial
 Utilizes the surplus surface runoff which otherwise drains off
 Spreading Method
 Recharge Shafts
 Injection Wells
 Induced Recharge
 Improved Land and Watershed Management
 In this technique, an injection well of 100-150 mm diameter is constructed at the bottom of the shaft
piercing through the layers of impermeable horizon to the potential aquifers to be reached about 3 to l5
m below the water level.
 Ideally suitable for very deep water level (more than 15 m).
 Aquifer is overlain by impervious thick clay beds.
 Injection well can be with or without assembly
 The injection well with assembly should have screen in the potential aquifer at least 3- 5m below the
water level
 The injection well without assembly is filled with gravel to provide hydraulic continuity so that water is
directly recharged into the aquifer
 The injection well without assembly is very cost effective
 Depending upon volume of water to be injected, number of injection wells, can be increased to enhance
the recharge rate
 The efficiency is very high and rate of recharge is very high.
 Ideally suited for areas where permeable sandy horizon is within 3 m below
ground level and continues upto the water level – under unconfined conditions.
 Copious water available can be easily recharged due to large storage and
recharge potential.
 Silt water can be easily recharged.
 2 to 3 m wide and 2 to 3 m deep trench is excavated, length of which depends on
the volume of water to be handled.
 With and without injection well.
 Water table, also called groundwater table, upper level of an underground
surface in which the soil or rocks are permanently saturated with water. The water
table separates the groundwater zone that lies below it from the capillary fringe,
or zone of aeration, that lies above it. The water table fluctuates both with the
seasons and from year to year because it is affected by climatic variations and by
the amount of precipitation used by vegetation. It also is affected by withdrawing
excessive amounts of water from wells or by recharging them artificially.
 Write short notes on drilling equipments used in groundwater exploitation
 Common techniques of ground water well drilling