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NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTORYFLUID MECHANICS
YEAR I- SE MESTER I
THEORY/
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
WEEK 1
Introduction
Elements of fluid mechanics
Fluids
Deformation by shearing forces
Differences between fluids and solids
WEEK 2
Behaviour of liquid and gas in a container
Molecular structure of material
Properties of fluids
Behaviour of fluids at rest
WEEK 3
Fluid static
Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid with gravity
Pressure and head
Measurement of pressure using manometer
WEEK 4
Measurement of pressure difference
Inverted U-tube manometer
Advantages and disadvantages of U-tube manometer
WEEK 5
Calculations of pressure
WEEK 6
More calculations on pressure
Hydraulic press
Pressure depth
Buoyancy of floating bodies
Equilibrium of floating bodies
WEEK 7
Fluid in motion
Uniform and steady flow
2
Rate of flow
Continuity equation
WEEK 8
Calculations on rate of flow
WEEK 9
Bernoulli’s equation
Pitot tube
WEEK 10
Venturimeter
Flow through notches and weirs
WEEK 11
Reynolds’ dye experiment
Reynolds’ number
WEEK 12
Calculations on Reynolds’ number
Chezy’s formula
Headless due to friction in pipes
Calculations on head loss
WEEK 13
More calculations on head loss
WEEK 14
Flow in open channels
Uniform and non0uniform flow
Pumps
WEEK 15
Matching pumps with systems
Pumps classification
Turbines
3
WEEK 1
Introduction
The students were introduced to the subject with a general revision on what they
learnt in ordinary level physics, especially what has to do with applied mechanics.
In the same week, the main course introductory fluid mechanics was introduced
with the behavior of fluid under the condition of rest and motion. The fluid
DYNAMICS.
hydrostatics and that dealing with the compressible static gasses is termed
aerostatics.
B. KINEMATICS ;It deals with the velocities, accelerations and the pattern of
flow only. forces or energy causing velocity and acceleration are not dealt under
this heading
4
Fluid mechanics can otherwise be defined as the branch of applied mechanics
which is mainly concerned with the statics and dynamics of liquids and gases. The
analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based upon the fundamental laws of applied
momentum equation. However there is need to understand that there are two major
aspects of fluid mechanics which differ from solid-body mechanics. The first aspect
is the one that has to do with the nature and properties of the fluid itself, which are
very different from those of a solid. As for the second aspect, it is clear that instead
of dealing with individual bodies or elements of known mass, in this case we are
are confronted with a problem in that it can be extremely difficult to specify either
the precise movement of a stream of a fluid or that of individual particles within it.
obtained in the calculations reliable and acceptable. The results obtained will
provide basis for the design of fluid systems. This kind of approach has proved to
5
1.2 Fluids
forces
Scientifically speaking, three states of matters are recognized. They are: solids,
liquids and gas. Although they are different in many aspects, however liquids and
gas have common characteristics in which they differ from solids. They are fluids,
Fluids flow under the action of such forces deforming continuously as long as the
force is applied. A fluid is unable to retain any unsupported shape; it flows under its
own weight and takes the shape of any solid body with which it comes into contact.
B B1 C C1
F
X
E
F
A D
The type of deformation shown above is caused by shearing forces i.e. force such as
F which act tangentially to the surfaces to which they are applied and cause the
6
material originally occupying the space ABCD to deform to AB'C'D as shown in the
figure.
continuously under the action of shearing forces, however small they may be. And
if fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in
the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.
deformation and being deformed within elastic limit; also capable to regain its
initial state of equilibrium when the applied shear forces are removed. A fluid, on
the other hand, deforms continuously or flows when shear forces are applied to it
and it has no tendency whatsoever to regain its initial state; instead it comes to rest
as soon as the shear forces are removed. The state of a fluid thus corresponds to the
7
Differences between fluids and solids
These are some of the differences between the behaviours of fluids and solids under
an applied force:
For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded. But for a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the
applied stress.
The strain in a solid is independent of time over which the force is applied
and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded the deformation disappears when the force is
The attractive forces between the molecules of a solid are so large that a
solid tends to retain its shape. This is not the case for a fluid where attractive forces
8
PRACTICAL
WEEK ONE
FUNCTIONS
AIM
1) To confirm the theory relating to the flow under a sluice gate with the formation
2) To estimate the force exerted by the sluice gate on the flow from the momentum
function consideration;
3) To estimate the energy head loss and the power loss due to the hydraulic jump by
APPARATUS
b) Constant and steady supply of water into the channel with a means of
c) Sluice gate;
g) Measuring scale.
Adjustable
9
Sluice gate
Hydraulic jump
channel
Downstream control
weir
pump
Fig.1
y3 y1
y2
Fig. 2
From fig. 2 above, at any point the specific energy E and momentum function M
is given by:
10
E = y + q2
2gy2 and
Applying the E and M concepts to the flow under sluice gate with the formation
E1 = E2
And P = P/ρg = M2 – M1
Where P = force per unit width exerted by the sluice gate on the fluid.
M2 = M3
y3 = y2 √ [1 + 8F22 ] - 1
2
Due to lack of time, we stopped the practical here. We will continue and finish the
11
WEEK 2
At the beginning of this week, before we continue students were asked questions
on what we did last week so as to make sure they understand the previous
lectures. Then a lecture on the behaviou of liquid and gas, properties of fluids and
variation of pressure vertically in a fluid was presented and the following are the
Even though liquid and gas both share common characteristics of fluids, they
have distinctive things of their own. For example, a liquid is difficult to compress
liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container
and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of
free surface
LIQUID
pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of
temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand
12
any container in which it is placed hence it does not form a free surface as shown
below:
GAS
Solids, liquids and gas are all composed of molecules in continuous motion.
However, the management of these molecules and the space between them
differs, giving rise to the characteristic properties of the three different states of
matter. In solids, the molecules are densely and regularly packed and movement is
slight, each molecule being restrained by its neighbours. In liquids, the structure is
restrained to some degree by the surrounding molecules, can break away from this
spaces between molecules are large and the molecules can move freely. The
molecules of a substance exert forces on each other which vary with their inter-
each molecule consists of a single atom. An idea of the nature of the forces acting
may be formed from observing the behaviour of such a substance and making the
following conclusions:
13
if the two pieces of the same materials are far apart, there is no detachable
force exerted between them. Thus, the forces between molecules are
negligible when widely separated and tend to zero as the separation tends
towards infinity.
Two pieces of the same material can be made to weld together if they are
forced into very close contact. Under these conditions, the forces between
Very large forces are required to compress solids or liquids, indicating that
Properties of fluids
1) Density: The density (ρ) of a liquid is its mass per unit volume
acceleration ‘g’.
apply it to gasses, and usually express it in cubic feet per slug(m 3/kg in SI units)
It arises from the interaction of fluid molecules. It follows therefore that there can
be no shear stress in a fluid which is at rest. A fluid at rest cannot resist shearing
14
forces, and, if such forces act on a fluid which is in contact with a solid boundary,
the fluid will flow over the boundary in such a way that the particles immediately
in contact with the boundary have the same velocity as the boundary, while
velocities.
4) Surface tension
Even though all molecules are in constant motion, on average, a molecule within
the body of the liquid is attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules
surrounding it. But at the surface between liquid and air, or the interface between
one substance and another, the upward and downward attractions are unbalanced
with the surface molecules being pulled inward towards the bulk of the liquid.
This effect causes the liquid surface to behave as if it were an elastic membrane
under tension. The surface tension σ is measured as the force acting across unit
length of a line drawn on the surface. It acts in the plane surface, normal to any
line in the surface, and is the same at all points. Surface tension is constant at any
since to expand the surface area, molecules have to be brought to the surface
from the bulk of the liquid against the unbalanced attraction pulling the surface
molecules inwards. For this reason, drop of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in
order to minimize surface area. For such a small droplet surface tension will cause
15
enable a drop of water to be held in suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with a
6) Capillarity
If a fine tube open at both ends, is lowered into a liquid which wets the tube (e.g.
liquid
Ѳ
Gas Ѳ
Solid Ѳ<π/2
Water
Wetting liquid
(WATER)
16
If the liquid does not wet tube (like mercury), the level of the liquid in the tube
will be depressed below the level of the free surface outside (convex) as shown
below:
Ѳ˃π/2
liquid
Gas
Mercury Solid
A fluid is said to be at rest, when it is lying in one place and it is not moving. In
other words, it is static. If any force is exerted on any particle, within the fluid, is
the same in all directions. However, if the applied forces were unequal (some are
greater than others), the particles within the fluid would move in the direction of
the resultant force. This means that the force per unit area, exerted by the fluid
against the wall of an arbitrarily shaped containing vessel, is perpendicular to the
interior walls at every point. If the pressure were not perpendicular, an unbalanced
tangential force component would exist and the fluid would move along the wall.
This is what Pascal tried to verify in what is known as Pascal’s law.
17
Fig 1.2a Fig. 1.2b Fig.1.2c
The above figure has shown three different situations at the same depth, even
though they differ in how they are located. For example, fig1.2c shows the bottom
of a pond, while fig.1.2b and fig.1.2a shows pipes though of equal length and
diameter, but one is standing upright while the other is tilted. But despite these
differences in either shape or location, the fact is that the pressure exerted by
water at the bottom of a pond in fig.1.2c, will be the same as the pressure exerted
by water at the bottom of the straight pipe in fig.1.2b (even though it is narrower
than the pond), since their depth is the same. The same thing occur in fig.1.2a
even though the pipe is tilted but it lie at the same depth with the one in fig.1.2b,
its water will exert the same pressure as in fig. 1.2b. From this explanation, it is
now clear that the pressure at the bottom of a pipe which is 20 m in height is the
18
19
PRACTICAL
WEEK TWO
The practical started in the first week continued in this week because we are not
Procedure
Adjust the channel bed model to a horizontal position and place sluice gate at a
fixed height above bed, sealing the openings between the gate and channel well to
prevent leakage.
Record the height of the gate above the channel bed and the width of the channel
(b).
Admit water into the channel and adjust the flow control and downstream control
Allow the system to steady and take the discharge Q, and the flow depths y 1, y2
and y3.
Vary the flow rates and repeat the readings. Take at least 4 readings and record
Readings:
20
Channel width (b) = …….
collected
(m3)
Choose any experimental value of q and with varying depth of flow, using the
21
WEEK 3
This week the students were told to ask any question on the previous topic, before
starting this new topic. After answering questions from students, lecture was
delivered and the following are the notes given to them for this week:
FLUID STATICS
Area P2
A
Mass density Z2
of fluid ρ
Z1
P1
constant cross-sectional area A and is also totally surrounded by the same fluid of
22
mass density ρ. Assuming the pressure to be p 1 on the under side at level z1 and p2
on the top at level z2. Since the fluid is at rest the element must be in equilibrium
and the sum of all the vertical forces must be zero. Now, since the fluid is at rest,
there can be no shear forces and therefore no vertical force acting on the side of
the element due to surrounding fluid. This in a fluid under gravitational attraction,
Liquid
density
h e
P
X
In a liquid, the pressure P at any depth, say z, measured downward from the free
h1 h2
23 B
Fig. 3 Piezometer Head.
The pressure at a point in a fluid is usually expressed as ‘pressure head ‘or height
of that column of that fluid, h such that h=p/ρg similarity of this expression with
the hydrostatic law suggests that the pressure referred to is static pressure whether
the fluid in question is at rest or in motion. The point at which pressure is being
considered may have a ‘ DATUM HEAD’ (z) with reference to an arbitrary
datum level. The datum head at a point may be positive or negative depending
upon its location i.e above or below datum level.
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement
in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or
piezometer as shown above.
To get the pressure at A:
Pressure due to the column of liquid of height h1 =. PA = ρg h1
Similarly pressure at B, will be : PB = ρ g h2
A
h2
B C
24
The bottom of the U –tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater
density ρ man and is immiscible with the fluid P, of density ρ, whose pressure is to
be measured. If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is a point
Pressure at B, PB = Pressure at C, PC
= PD + ρ man g h2
PC = 0 + ρ man g h2
25
PRACTICAL
WEEK THREE
Objectives
1. To determine the relationship between head H and flow rate Q over rectangular
Method
26
1. Stand the apparatus on the hydraulic bench and connect the bench supply hose
to the inlet pipe. Fix the flexible outlet hose into the pipe leading to the bench
weighing tank.
2. Carefully slide the rectangular notch plate into the groove on the apparatus and
check that the rubber seal makes contact with the plate along all three edges.
3. Switch on the bench pump and open the bench supply valve. Fill the apparatus
with water until the level reaches the bottom crest of the notch. Close the supply
valve.
4. Using a beaker, add or remove water until the water surface is just level with the
notch crest. Use a steel rule to check that the level is correct.
5. Set the hook gauge dial to zero and slide the hook up and down until the point of
the hook just coincide with the water surface. Subsequent readings of the water
6. Set the hook gauge to a reading of 60 mm. Then adjust the bench supply valve
until the water level corresponds roughly to the hook gauge setting.
7. Wait until the water level had settled to a constant value, then adjust the hook to
8. Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of water in the bench weighing
tank. Again use the hook gauge to measure the water level and record a mean value
of head.
9. Now decrease the head by about 5 mm and take another set of head and flow rate
readings. Repeat this procedure until you have about 8 sets of readings over a range
27
10. Close the bench supply valve and fix the Vee notch to the apparatus. Set the
water level to the base of the Vee notch by adding or removing water. Check that
the level is correct by observing the notch from close to the water surface. The point
11. Repeat the procedures given in steps (5) to (9), but this time obtain readings
12. Switch off the bench pump. Record the width of the rectangular notch and the
We will stop here and the practical will be concluded next week.
28
WEEK 4
Having learn how to use pressure using a U- tube manometer, this week the
lecture goes further to show how pressure difference and be calculated and an
inverted manometer can be used to calculate pressure. The notes are as follows:
the pressure difference is that the pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs
must be the same since the fluid in the bottom of the U- tube is at rest: as shown
below:
B
A
Fluid P of density ℓ
b
a
h
C D
Manometric liquid Q
of density ℓ man
Since PC = PD
29
PA + ρ g a = PB + ρ g (b – h) +ρ man g h
X X
h
Liquid density ℓ
b
a
B
The above figure is showing an inverted U- tube manometer which is used for
measuring pressure differences in liquids. The top of the U- tube is filled with a
fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that connected to the instrument.
Since the fluid in the top is at rest, pressures at level XX will be the same in both
limbs.
30
Advantages and disadvantages of a manometer
measure very small pressure differences, it can however not be used conveniently
improve the range. A manometer does not have to be calibrated from first
principles. However, for accurate work, the temperature should be known since
this will affect the density of the fluids. Some liquids are unsuitable for the use
because they do not form well defined menisci. Surface tension can also cause
error due to capillary rise, this can be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are
correct for surface tension, since its effect will depend upon whether the tubes are
clean. A major disadvantage of manometer is its slow response, which makes its
conditions, slight fluctuations of pressure can make the liquid in the manometer to
oscillate, so that it is difficult to get a precise reading of the levels of the liquid in
31
ADVANTAGES;
2. Good accuracy
3.high sensitivity
LIMITATIONS
gravity
32
P PRACTICAL
WEEK FOUR
Results
The Volume flow rates for the two notches are given by the following equations:
Rectangular:
Vee Notch:
The expressions in square brackets represent the ideal fix rates. The discharge
coefficient C is thus the ratio of the actual flow to the ideal flow for each notch.
curves of Q against H.
2. Plot graphs of log Q against H. The points should lay on straight lines of
1. Now obtain values of k and hence calculate the discharge coefficient C for
33
For rectangular:
C= k
2/3 √2gb
C= k
8/15√ 2g tanθ
Conclusion
In his laboratory report, the student is expected to write a summary of what he has
1. To what extent has the results obtained confirmed the theory learnt in the
lectures.
2. Is the value of C constant over the flow range for each notch?
34
WEEK 5
following are among the problems we solved together with the students in the
class:
height of 1.5 m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom of the tank. Give
Solution: P=ρgh
P = 11.8 k N / m2
tank. Take the density of the fluid to be 780 kg /m3, and g to be 9.81.
Solution: P = ρ g h
= 780 x 9.81 x 20
1000
= 15.3 k N / m2
Exercise 3: What will be a) the gauge pressure (b) the absolute pressure of water
at a depth of 12 m below the free surface. Assume the density of water to be 1000
Solution: a) Pressure P = ρ g h
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12
= 117.72 x 103
35
= 117.72 x 103
1000
= 117.72 k N / m2
surface of a body of water and (b) at a depth 9 m below the free surface of a body
36
PRACTICAL
WEEK FIVE
DIFFUSION OF GAS
EXPERIMENT
surface.
Theory
Consider a liquid evaporating by the diffusion of its vapour up a tube with zero
i.e. x = xo at time = 0
and x = xt at time = t
conditions:
CL dx = c D (M1 – M2)
dt x ML
where
D = Diffusion constant
37
M2 = Molar fraction of A in gas phase at top of tube (zero in this
Experiment
ML = Vapour of liquid
ln (mole fraction of air at the top of tube/ mole fraction of air at
bottom of tube)
Readings to be taken
o With a flow of air across the top, take readings with the measuring
Results
reading
38
Repeat the experiment at different temperatures and comment on the effect of
39
WEEK 6
manometer and the level difference was found to be 254 mm. Calculate the value
= 33887.6 N / m2
= 33.9 k N / m2
pipe. If the mercury liquid Q is 30 cm below A in the left hand limb and 20 cm
above A in the right hand limb, what will be the pressure at A. The specific
Solution: PA = ρ man x g x h2 - ρ g h1
PA = 63.8 k N / m2
Hydraulic press
HYDRAULIC PRESS
P W
Area A
Area
a
P1 P2
40
P (force) = Piston
p1 = P
A
p2 = W
A
Exercise 6: What force will be applied at piston A to lift the load of 500 N as
P W
Area Area A
a
P1 P2
Exercise 7.A hydraulic press has a ram of 180mm diameter and punger of 36mm
diameter with stroke length of 300mm. weight excerted by press ram amounts to
7KN and distance moved is 0.9mm in 15minutes. Determine the force applied on
plunger.
Sol.
41
Diameter of plunger=36mm=0.0036m Area of plunger, a=π/4x0.036m
7=0.28KN
Pressure diagram
The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls of
structure and other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient
to calculate the horizontal force exerted per unit width. Let us take the figure
below as examples
A
P = egy
y
2
/3 H
H
Liquid
Density e R
eg H
B C
In the above figure, ABC is the pressure diagram for the vertical wall of the tank
At the free surface A, which is exposed to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure is
represented by the triangle ABC. The area of the triangle will be the product of
depth (in metres) and pressure, this will represent, to scale, the resultant force R
on unit width of the immersed surface perpendicular to the plane of the diagram.
42
Therefore, area of pressure diagram will be: ½xABxBC.This can also be written
H2/2 for unit width. The resultant force R will act through the centroid P of the
body will rise to the surface provided that the weight of the body is less than the
weight of the displaced liquid. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is
known as the centre of buoyancy and a submerged body orientates itself so that its
gravity and centre of buoyancy coincides, the body will remain in any position
43
Equilibrium of floating bodies
When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces present are the
upthrust R acting through the centre of buoyancy B and the weight of the body W
W = mg
G
B
V = volume displaced
For equilibrium, R and W must be equal and act in the same straight line. Now, R
or remain in the displaced position. For a floating body, such as a ship, stability is
of major importance.
titlted slightly , by external forces, and the then it returns back to its original
44
2. .Unstable Equilbrium ; if a body does not return to its original position from
slightly displaced angular position and heels farther away,when given a small
angular displacement.
occupies a new position and remain @rest in this new position , it is said to
PRACTICAL
WEEK SIX
45
APPLYING THE MOMENTUM EQUATION ON A JET OT WATER
V1Q1 x
V2Q2
Nozzle
Consider a jet of ideal flow (fluid without viscosity) striking a flat smooth plane.
Hence there is no shear force parallel to the plate working on the body of fluid.
Velocity on the jet to the plane is the same on that leaving the plane, i.e. V1 = V2.
As there are no forces working on the fluid in x-direction and applying the
Q2 as follows:
Q1- Q2 = Q Cos θ
The only force working on the plate is (in opposite direction on the fluid) is in Y
direction. Applying again the momentum equation it is clear that no fluid after
Conclusion: Force on the plate is working normal to the plate in magnitude eQv
Sinθ
Students are expected to determine Q1 and Q2 according to how they taught in the
class.
46
WEEK 7
There was a revision on what was covered in the syllabus so far. Individual
topics. Lectures were delivered on the flow of water inside pipes, difference
47
between uniform and steady flows. Similarly, rate of flow and continuity
Fluid in motion
low, then the fluid flows in parallel lines along the sides of the pipeline. In such a
case, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if the average velocity is increased
beyond a critical value, the fluid particles move in a disorderly manner. In such a
Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given point
can vary from one moment of time to the next. Therefore there are four possible
Steady uniform flow: In this case the conditions did not change with the
position or time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are
the same at each cross-section. An example is the flow of a liquid through a pipe
Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point but not with
time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from cross-
section to cross-section, but for each cross-section, they will not vary with time.
completely full.
48
Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is
the same, but this velocity will change with time. An example is accelerating flow
of liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running full, such as would occur when a
Unsteady non-uniform flow: The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from
point to point and also change with time. For example a wave traveling along a
channel.
Rate of flow
When a liquid flows through the pipeline, the volume of liquid passing any given
discharge, Q.
Cross-sectional area
Pipeline A
Velocity V
If the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is A, and the fluid flows with a uniform
Continuity equation
δ A1
V2
V1 δ A2
49
Consider the above illustrations indicating flow of water in a given pipe. Let us
suppose that the end sectional areas are δA1 and δA2, and the corresponding
velocities, assumed uniform, are V1 and V2. It is evident that the elemental
Q = V1A1 = V2 A2
The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation between the
flows into and out of a junction for steady condition similar to the one shown
below:
A2
V2
Q2
A1
V1
Q1
A3
V3
Q3
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1 x V1 = A2 V2 + A3 x V3
50
PRACTICAL
WEEK SEVEN
51
EXPERIMENT: MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES
AIM
a) sudden contraction;
b) a gate valve
PROCEDURE
Record the diameters of the pipe upstream and downstream of the fittings and the
Connect the sudden contraction apparatus to the experimental system and fit the
pressure tapings upstream and downstream of the contraction. Purge the system of
Adjust the flow control valve to give maximum flow. Allow the flow conditions to
steady and record the flow rate C, and water levels h1 and h2 in the manometer
limbs.
Reduce the flow rate in steps and take a series of readings of Q, h1 and h2.
THEORY
52
he = Kv2
2g
Where:
K = loss coefficient
Where:
K = (1/C-1)2
hL= Kv2
2g
If velocity loss is taken into account, the total energy head loss (h1- h2) is equal to
h1 – h2 = FLV2 + Kv2
2gd 2g
d = Pipe diameter
Readings
53
(m) (m) volume (sec) (m3/sec) (m/sec) (m)
(m3)
WEEK 8
54
This week, the lecture focuses on using the formulae that was taught in the last
Solution : Q = V x A
0.6 x π x (0.015)2
4
flow.
Solution: Q = A x V
V = Q = 0.002 x 4
A π (0.05)2
= 1.02 m / sec
at entry point and 0.14 m diameter at the outlet. The rate of flow is found to be 0.6
V2 = Q = 0.6 x 4
A2 π (0,14)2
Exercise 10: Water is flowing through a pipeline which contract from 500 mm
55
of the branches at position C has a diameter of 100 mm while the one at d has 200
Solution: QA = QC + QD
QA = AC VC + QD
56
57
PRACTICAL
WEEK EIGHT
The students were taken to a site visit where a contractor is excavating and laying
new pipes to connect the Gurara water in Kaduna state with Abuja, the Federal
Capital of Nigeria. During the visit, the students were conducted around the area
and they asked the site engineer of the project various questions.
After our return, the students were asked to write on the following:
2) The distance between the project site to Usma Dam in Abuja where the water
delivered to Abuja
WEEK 9
58
This week a test was conducted for the students and the questions and solution
were as follows:
A = 1.9799 x 10-3 m2
d2 = 4 x 1.9799 x 10 -3
π x 103
d2 = 2.5208
103
d = √(25.208-4) = 50.2 mm
the speed of flow is 6 m /sec, and at position 2 the speed is 4 m /sec. The diameter
Solution: Q = A2 x V2
= π d22 x V2
4
= 3.14 x 22
4
Q = 12.6 m3 / sec
A1 x V1 = A2 V2
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π d12 x V1 = π d22 x V2
4 4
d12 V1 = d22 V2
d12 = d22 x V2
V1
= 22 x 4 = √2.68
6
d1 = 1.63 m
After the test lectures continues in the week, and the following notes were given:
Bernoulli’s equation
It states that: H = Z + P + V2
ρg 2g
or P/W + V2/2g+z
P = pressure energy
Ρg
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid
within a particular system is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the
system at any point. This principle of conservation of energy can be used to solve
h
60 C
Datum B
Consider the above tank of water in which water is flowing through an orifice in
the side of the tank with a velocity V1, under a static head ‘h’. Bernoulli’s theorem
Exercise 10: in a horizontal pipeline, there is a liquid that is flowing and the pipe
calculate the velocity and pressure head at B. Take g = 10 and Z as the datum.
QA = QB
AA VA = AB VB
0 + 15 + 22 = ZB + PB + (3.55)2
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2 x10 ρg 2 x 10
15 + 0.2 = PB + 0.63
ρg
Exercise 11. Water flows in a circular pipe . At one section the diameter is 0.3m,
the static pressure is 260kpa gauge, the velocity is 3m/s and elevation is 10m
above ground level. The elevation at a section downstream is 0m, and the pipe
diameter is 0.15m. find out the gauge pressure at the downstream section
9800.19
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Pitot tube
h
Z
| U
0
U
A B
The pilot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and it consists of a
simple L-shaped tube facing into the on-coming flow. In its elementary form, it
consists of a tube with unsealed ends. One limb is inserted in the area of flow
while the other is vertical and open to the atmosphere. From the above figure, if
the velocity of the stream at A is ‘u’, a particle moving from A to the mouth of the
tube B will be brought to rest, so that ‘u0’ at B is zero.. Bernoulli’s equation can
be applied here.
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PRACTICAL
WEEK NINE
This week the students were taken for a visit to Kangimi village along Jos road. The
dam is used for water supply and irrigation. The purpose of the visit is for the
rectangular weirs were given to the students at the dam site. Therefore the
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WEEK 10
This week, the lecture focuses on instrument of measuring instruments and the
Venturimeter
difference between any two points on a tapering pipe through which a fluid is
flowing depends on the difference of level, the velocities and the rate of flow
through the pipe. Hence the pressure difference can be used to determine the rate
of flow for any particular situation. The venturimeter uses this effect for the
conical tube leading to a cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter
than that of the pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section in which the
Converging Diverging
Enter Throat
cone cone
Piezometer
rings
Control of water level and regulation of discharge are very necessary for the
purposes of irrigation, water conservation and navigation. There are wide varieties
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of hydraulic structures normally used to suit a particular need. They range from
notches, weirs to spillways of large dams. A notch has an opening in the side of a
H b
H δh
H
h
θ
/2 H B
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PRACTICAL |
WEEK TEN
This week the students were taken to a construction site in Kaduna town where
constructions of open drains are in progress. The students were conducted round to
different parts of the project. After the visits, the students were asked the following
questions:
2) What are the sides' slopes of the trapezoidal drain? Also draw the section?
3) Calculate the areas of these drains and the expected run off water that they will
carry.
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WEEK 11
This week the lecture focuses on the experiment carried out by Reynolds to show
that turbulent and laminar flow can occur in a pipe. The following are the notes
given to students:
Dye
Glass tube
Water Dye
Filament
In his experiment, Reynolds showed that under suitable conditions, the two types
of flow (turbulent and laminar) could be made to occur in one pipe. His apparatus
were simple and consist essentially of a glass tube through which water could be
passed at varying velocities. Provision was made for the insertion of thin dye into
the stream of water at the upstream end. Commencing with a very low water
velocity, it was found that the dye remained intact in the form of a thin slender
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thread extending the whole length of the tube. This indicates that the particles of
liquid were moving in straight parallel paths and that the flow was therefore
laminar.
Glass tube
dye fulament
The velocity of the water was then gradually increased and at a certain point the
thread broke up and the diffused dye intermingled with the water in the tube. The
flows have evidently passed into the turbulent state and were found to remain in
diffused dye
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Reynolds number
It is a numerical quantity that is a ratio between the inertial forces and viscous
forces that exists in a flow. Reynolds found that the type of flow is determined by
the velocity, dynamic viscosity, pipeline diameter and the density of the fluid.
Re = ρ v d
η
Where ρ = density of fluid
η = dynamic viscosity
v = velocity
d = diameter of pipe.
The critical value of the velocity occurs when the Reynolds’ number is
o If the Reynolds’ value is less than 2000, then the flow can be said to be
laminar.
o If the Reynolds’ value is between 2000 and 4000 the flow is said to be
turbulent.
o If the Reynolds’ value is greater than 4000 then the flow can be said to
be turbulent.
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PRACTICAL
WEEK ELEVEN
The students were taken to the laboratory where they were shown a model of
Reynolds' dye experiment. Starting with a low velocity, the students were
shown the behaviour of the applied dye. After the increase in velocity, they
follows:
2) Using the following data determine the types of flow in the following
cases:
i) if the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, pipe diameter of 250 mm and the
m /sec.
71
WEEK 12
In order to make the students understand the equations introduced in the last
Exercise 11; the velocity at which oil of density 800 kg / m3 is flowing through a
Exercise 12: The same oil of density 800 kg / m3 and viscosity 171 x 10-3 Ns / m2
Solution: Re = ρ v d
η
Chezy’s formula
General equation for head losses in turbulent flow could be derived concurrently
for both open and closed section conduits. Chezy’s formula is among these
V √R x S, therefore V = C √ R x S
72
Head loss due to friction in pipes
The frictional resistance to which fluids flowing through pipes are subjected is
dependent on the velocity, area of wetted surface and the nature of surface. The
V1 d1
a
H
V2 d2
b
c V3 d3
L1
1 L2 d
2
L3
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6) Between (c and d), loss due to friction: 4fL3V32
2gd3
Exercise 13: Two reservoirs are connected with pipe 500 m long and the diameter
is 100 mm. If the difference in water levels between the two reservoirs is 15 m,
what is the velocity of flow in the pipe? Take f=0.01 and g=10
Solution
H = 0.5 V12 + 4fL1V12 + V12
2g 2gd1 2g
15 = V12 0.5 + 10 + 1
20 20
15 = V12 10.075
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PRACTICAL
WEEK TWELVE
The students were taken on a visit to two irrigation sites in Igabi local Government
of Kaduna State. In both sites, the students saw how water pumps are used to raise
water from one position to other. They saw different types of water pumps and they
asked the farmers how they are using the pumps and how efficient are the pumps in
1) Explain the working principles of the different types of pumps you saw at the
two sites.
2) From your observations which of the pumps is more efficient in lifting the water
3) What are the problems that the farmers are facing in operating and maintenance
of the pumps?
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WEEK 13
In this week a second test was given to the students. This is the question and the
solution:
long and then 250 mm diameter for the remaining 45 m length CB. The friction
coefficient f is 0.01 and g = 10. Calculate the flow rate and check whether
Q1 = Q2
Solution:
45 x V22+ V22
2 x 10
A1 V1 = A2 V2
V1 = (1.56V2)2 = 2.43V22
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V2 = √10.62 = 3.3 m / sec
Therefore Q1 = Q2
Questions were asked by the students on this calculation and were answered to the
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PRACTICAL
WEEK THIRTEEN
This week the students were taken for a visit to Malali water works in Kaduna
North Local Government area of Kaduna state. The students were conducted round
the treatment plants where they were shown different types of pumps that are used
1) Which type of pump is use in lifting water from the intake to the treatment
plant?
2) Have you noticed that without the pumps the treatment of water would have
78
WEEK 14
This week the lectures focus on the differences between flow of water in open
channels and that of pipes. Also the use of pumps in improving water supply to a
It is a flow with a free surface. This flow differs from the flow in pipes in so far as
pressure at the free surface is constant (normally atmospheric) and does not vary
from point to point in the direction of flow, as the pressure can do in a pipeline.
controlled by the fixed boundaries, since the depth can vary from section to
The types of flow in open channel are classified with respect to change in flow
depth. The flow depth may vary with time and space.
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Time is the criteria. If the depth of flow does not change or if it can be assumed to
flow.
If the depth varies with reference to time, it is known as unsteady flow. Examples
are floods and surges. Most of the open channel flows are studied under steady
conditions.
In this case, space is the criteria. A flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow
is the same at every section of the channel. If the depth of flow changes along the
Pumps
Pumps are used to raise water from one (lower) point to another (high) point.
Therefore pumps may be needed to lift water from a lake, reservoir or river to
water treatment plant and after treatment another lift will be needed to force water
80
PRACTICAL
81
WEEK FOURTEEN
This week the students paid similar visit as that of last week to Barnawa treatment
plant in Kaduna South area of Kaduna State. The students were conducted round
the plant by the Water Engineer in charge of the plant. The engineer explained
that the major difference between the Barnawa treatment plant and the Malali
plant that the students visited last week is that most of the industries are located in
Kaduna South; therefore this plant is dealing with raw water that includes
1) What extra effort has the Barnawa treatment plant to do apart from the normal
WEEK 15
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Matching pumps to system
In many cases involving bad water supply situations, people always suggest that
there is need to purchase a pump in order to improve the water supply. But the big
question that needs to be answered is: what sort of pump is needed to match the
system in question? Honestly, solving the problem and obtaining the correct pump
need or involve a long procedure. If this procedure is not carried out, and a pump
is bought from the market, the chances that it will perform very well are very
small. In order to carry out the procedure of selecting a pump that will match a
calculations. The more accurate the data and calculations, the better pump will be
acquired for the lifting of the water. In the process of distributing water, booster
Where the source of supply is a well, pumps will be needed to raise the water into
a collecting basin, unless the wells are of artesian type. From the collecting basin,
the main pump will force the water into the mains. For pumping into the water
Pump classification
The pumps that are used for water supply systems can be broadly divided into two
draws water into a cylinder on the intake stroke and then forces it out on the
discharging stroke, and the rotary type in which two rotating pistons or gears
83
interlock and draw water into the chamber and force it continuously into the
discharge pipe. As for the centrifugal type, it has an impeller with radial vans
rotating swiftly to draw water into the centre and discharge it by centrifugal force.
Turbines
Francis
Reaction
Turbine
Turbines
84
Turbine is a rotating engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water
into mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with
the moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts energy
into it. This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate
Water turbines are mainly used in hydro- power stations to drive electric
generators. There are three well-known types that are in common used. These are:
1.The Pelton wheel: It is an impulse turbine in which bucket or vanes of elliptic
shape are attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel. One or two nozzles project
a jet of water tangentially to the vane pitch circle.
2. Francis turbine is of reaction type. This means that during energy transfer in the
impeller there is a drop in static pressure and a drop in velocity head. Only part of
the total head presented to the machine is converted to velocity head before
entering the impeller. This is achieved in adjustable and stationary guide vanes.
This turbine is normally running full of water, which enters the impeller on the
whole periphery.
85
Axial flow (Kaplan) turbine. Like Francis turbine, this is also a reaction type of
turbine. In fact the arrangement guide vanes for an axial flow turbine are similar to
that for a Francis turbine. The guide vane ring is in a plane perpendicular to the
shaft so that the flow through it is radial. The impeller, however, is situated further
downstream, so that between the guide vanes and the impeller the water turns
through a right angle into the axial direction.
Pictures showing Kaplan and Pelton turbines
86
PRACTICAL
WEEK FIFTEEN
This week the students for the second time re-visited the Gurara dam where they
expected to see some turbines brought by the contractors for installation at the site
of the dam for the purpose of generating electricity in some parts of Kaduna State.
The turbines have not been installed but the students were taken round and they
87
1) Explain the type of turbine you were shown at the site
88