KADUNA POLYTECHNIC

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS (CEC101)

LECTURE NOTE

PREPARED BY

NAZEEF MAHMUD

&

KAMAL MUKHTAR MADO

 INTRODUCTION
 A structure can be defined as a series of connected interrelated elements that
form together a system that can resist a series of external load effects applied
to it, which includes its own self weight, and provide adequate rigidity. They
are usually made up of elements such as beam, column, cables, slabs etc.
examples of different structures are buildings, dams, bridges, retaining walls
etc.
 Mechanics is the study of forces that acts on a body and the resultant motion
that the body experience.
 Statics is the study of bodies in equilibrium.
 Free body diagram is the representation of a body in equilibrium, showing all
applied forces, moment, and reactive forces (reactions).
 Structural mechanics involves the analysis of structures using free- body
concept and equations of equilibrium.

FORCE

According to Newton’s first Law; force is defined as an action or agent, which

changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in a
straight line. The unit of force is newton and denoted as “N”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORCE

These are terms that help us in understanding a force completely, representing a

force and also distinguishing one force from another. A force is a vector quantity. It
has four important characteristics which can be listed as follows.

1. MAGNITUDE: These shows the quantity of the force and is denoted as

100N, 20KN etc.

1
 2. POINT OF APPLICATION: It indicates the point on the body on which
the force acts.
3. LINE OF ACTION: The arrowhead placed on the line represents the
direction of the force. It also refers to the orientation of its path.
4. SENSE OF FORCE: It is represented by a coordinate or cardinal system. It
refers to the manner in which the force acts along it’s line of action up or
down, right or left.

EXAMPLE 1: Consider a body being pushed by a force 10N as shown in the figure
below

Body

A B

10 kN

Line of Action

The characteristics of the force acting on the body are

1. Magnitude is 10N.
2. Point of application is A.
3. Line of action is A to B or AB
4. Direction is horizontal to right.

Consider a ladder AB resting on a floor and leaning against a wall, on which a person
weighing 750N stands on the ladder at a point C on the ladder.

2
 750 N
B
Ladder Wall

A D

The characteristics of the force acting on the ladder are;

1. Magnitude is 750N.
2. Point of application is c
3. Line of action is C to D or CD
4. Direction is vertically downward.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES

Depending upon their relative positions, points of application and lines of action, the
different force systems can be classified as follows.

1. COLLINEAR FORCES: It is a force system, in which all the forces have

the same line of action, example of such forces are forces in a rope in a tug of
war.

F1 F2

2. COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES: It is a force system in which all the

forces are lying in the same plane and have parallel lines of action, e.g. the
forces or loads and the support reactions in case of beams.

3
 Y

3. COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: It is a force system in which all

the forces are lying in the same plane and lines of action meet at a single point.
e.g the forces in the rope and pulley arrangement.

4. COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES: It is a force system in

which all the forces are lying in the same plane but lines of action do not meet
at a single point, e.g. forces on a ladder and reactions from floor and wall,
when a ladder rests on a floor and leans against a wall.

X
4
5. NON-COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES: It is a force system in which
all the forces are lying in the different planes and still have parallel line of
action, e.g the forces acting and the reactions at the points of contact of bench
with floor in a classroom.

6. NON-COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: It is a force system in

which all the forces are lying in the different planes and still have common
point of action, e.g. the forces acting on a tripod when a camera is mounted
on a tripod. Y

7. NON-COPLANAR NON- CONCURRENT FORCES: It is a force system

in which all the forces are lying in different planes and also do not meet at a
single point, e.g. forces acting on a building frame.

5
 Y

TYPES OF LOADS

Loads are classified based on two criteria’s;

A. Base on source or origin.

B. Base on analysis point of view.

A.) BASED ON SOURCE OR ORIGIN

1. Dead Load.
2. Live Load (Imposed Load).
3. Wind Load.
1.) Dead Load: This is the weight of the structure itself, and the structural
elements such as permanent partitions, ceiling etc. it can be calculated as the
product of the specific weight and the volume of the structure. Concrete
specific weight is 24KN/m3.
2.) Live Load (Imposed Load): These are mobile (transient) loads to be carried
by the structure and because of their nature, they are more difficult to
determine. It includes the weight of the occupant, furniture, machinery etc.

6
3.) Wind Load: These loads are imposed loads but treated specially because of
it’s nature. It is the impact of the local wind on the structure. The wind speed
is converted to force and effect on the structure is analyzed. It is common with
tall buildings.

B.) BASED ON ANALYSIS POINT OF VIEW

1. Point load (Concentrated Load)
2. Uniformly distributed Load (UDL)
3. Uniformly varying load (UVL)

1. POINT LOAD OR CONCENTRATED LOAD

If a load acts over a very small length of the beam, it is assumed to act at the
midpoint of the loaded length and such a loading is termed as point load or
concentrated load.

P kN (Point Load)

A B

Va Vb
Reaction (Reactive forces)

2. UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (UDL)

If a beam is loaded in such a manner that each unit length of the beam carries
the same intensity of loading. Then such a loading is called UDL. A UDL
cannot be considered in the same manner for applying conditions of
equilibrium on the beam. The UDL should be replaced by an equivalent point
load or total load acting through the mid-point of the loaded length. The

7
 magnitude of the point or total load is equal to the product of the intensity of
loading and the loaded length.

q kN/m W = q. L kN

L L/2 L/2

q kN/m W = q. X kN

A X B A + X/2
A + X/2
L

3. UNIFROMLY VARYING LOAD (UVL)

If a beam is loaded in such a manner that the intensity of loading varies

linearly or uniformly over each unit distance of the beam, then such a load is
termed as UVL. In applying conditions of equilibrium, a given UVL should
be replaced by an equivalent point load or total load acting through the
centroid of the loading diagram (right angle triangle). The magnitude of the
equivalent point load or total load is equal to the area of the loading diagram.

q kN/m W = q x L/3

2L/3 L/3
L

8
 q kN/m
2x/3 W = q X (x/2)
x/3

a x b
a x b
L

TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR BEAMS

Supports are structures which prevent the beam or the body from moving and
help to maintain equilibrium. A beam can have different types of supports as follows.
The support reactions developed at each support are represented as follows.

1. Roller Support: This is a support in which a beam rests on rollers which are
frictionless. At such support, the beam is free to move horizontally and as well
rotate about the support. Here, one reaction which is perpendicular to the plane
of rollers is developed.

R R

2. Hinge or Pinned Support: The beam is not free to move in any direction but
can rotate about the support. In such a support a horizontal reaction and a
vertical reaction are developed.

RH

RV

3. Fixed Support: This is a support which prevents the beam from moving in
any direction and also prevents rotation of the beam. In such a support a

9
 horizontal reaction, vertical reaction and a fixed end moment are developed
to keep the beam in equilibrium.

MA
RH

RA

REACTIONS

Structures are maintained in equilibrium by reactive forces (Reactions) provided

by supports of various kind.

P kN (Point Load)

A B

Va Vb
Reaction (Reactive forces)

MOMENT OF FORCE

The moment of a force is defined as a rotational effect caused by a force on a

body. Mathematically, moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of the
force and the perpendicular distance of the point from the line of action of the force
from the point.

10
The moment of the force about the point “O” is given as Mo=F x d.

Moment or rotational effect of a force is a physical quantity dependent on the units

for force and distance. Hence the units for moment can be “Nm” or “kNm” or
“Nmm” etc.

A clockwise moment ( ) is treated as positive and anticlockwise moment ( ) is treated

as negative.

DETERMINATION OF REACTIVE FORCES

EXAMPLE 1: From the diagram below, determine the reactive forces.

10 kN 25 kN 32 kN

A B

2m 3m 4m 1m

Free body diagram

10 kN 25 kN 32 kN

RA RB

HA 1m
2m 3m 4m

SOLUTION

From equation of equilibrium

∑X = 0 ;∑Y = 0 ; ∑M = 0

11
∑ X = 0 => Ha = 0 kN

∑ Y = 0 => VA + VB − 10 − 25 − 32 = 0

VA + VB − 67 = 0

VA + VB = 67 ……………. (1)

∑ MA = 0 => (-VB x 10) + (10x2) + (25x5) + (32x9) = 0

-10VB + 20 + 125 + 288 = 0

433
-10VB + 433 = 0 , VB = = 43.3kN
10

From eqn…………… (1)

VA + VB = 67

VA + 43.3 = 67, VA = 67 − 43.3 = 23.7 kN

EXAMPLE 2: From the diagram below, determine the reactive forces.

10 kN/m 20 kN/m

4m 2m 2m

Free Body Diagram

40 kN 40 kN

HA

VA VB
2m 5m 1m

12
SOULTION

∑ X = 0 , Ha = 0 kN

∑ Y = 0 , => VA + VB − 40 − 40 = 0

VA + VB − 80 = 0

VA + VB = 80……… (1)

∑ MB = 0 => (VA x 8) − (40x6) − (40x1) = 0

8VA − 240 − 40 = 0
280
8VA = 280 => VA = = 35 kN
8

From Eqn……. (1)

VA + VB = 80 => 35 + VB = 80

VB = 80 − 35 = 45 kN

EXAMPLE 3: From the diagram below, determine the reactive forces.

4kN 10kN/m
5kN/m
A B

2m 2m 4m 3m

SOLUTION

13
Free body diagram
4kN 20kN 15kN

VA VB
2m 4m 3m 2m

∑ X = 0 , Ha = 0 kN

∑ Y = 0 , => VA + VB − 4 − 20 − 15 = 0

VA + VB − 39 = 0 => VA + VB = 39………. (1)

∑ MA = 0 => (−VB x 11) + (4x2) + (20x6) + (15x9) = 0

−11VB + 8 + 120 + 135 = 0

263
11VB = 263 => VB = = 23.9 kN
11

From Eqn……. (1)

VA + VB = 39 => VA + 23.9 = 39

VA = 39 − 23.9 = 15.1 kN

FRICTION

Whenever a body moves or tends to move over another surface or body, a force
which opposes the motion of the body is developed tangentially at the surface of
contact, such an opposing force developed is called friction or frictional resistance.
The frictional resistance is developed due to the interlocking of the surface
irregularities at the contact surface between two bodies.

Consider a body weighing W resting on a rough plane and subjected to a force ‘P’
to displace the body.

14
 Body of weight ‘W’
P W

Rough Plane

F
N

Where P – Applied Force

N – Normal Reaction

F – Frictional Resistance

W – Weight of the body

The body can start moving or slide over the plane if the force ‘P’ overcomes the
frictional resistance ‘F’.

The frictional resistance developed is proportional to the magnitude of the applied

force which is responsible for causing motion up to a certain limit.

Limiting friction value

F 45

From the above figure we see that as P increases, F also increases however F cannot
increase beyond a certain limit. Beyond this limit (limiting friction value) the
frictional resistance becomes constant for any value of applied force. If the

15
magnitude of the applied force is less than that of limiting friction value, the body
remains at rest or in equilibrium. If the magnitude of the applied force is greater than
the limiting friction value, the body starts moving over the surface.

The friction experienced by a body when it is at rest or in equilibrium is known as

Static Friction. it can range between zero to a limiting friction value.

The friction experienced by a body when it is moving is called Dynamic Friction.

The dynamic friction experienced by a body as it slides over a plane as it is shown

in the figure below is called Sliding Friction.

The dynamic friction experienced by a body as it rolls over a surface is called

Rolling Friction.

W W

P
N
F
F
N

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

It has been proven experimentally that between two contacting surfaces, the
magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction, this ratio
is called Coefficient of Friction

F
μ =
N

16
 where

μ = Coefficient of friction
F = Friction resistance

N = Normal reaction

Note: In our discussion on friction all the surfaces will be dry surfaces.

DERIVATION OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

Y
W N X Y
X Wsinθ
θ
Wsinθ
θ
Wcosθ
Wcosθ

F = μN

∑ X = 0 = > Wsinθ − F = 0 => F = Wsinθ

∑ Y = 0 => N − Wcosθ = 0 => N = Wcosθ

F
From F = μN => μ =
N

F Wsinθ sinθ
Therefore μ = = = = tanθ
N Wcosθ cosθ

EXAMPLE 1

What is the coefficient of static friction if it takes 34 N of force to move a box that
weighs 67N?

17
SOLUTION

W = 67N

P = 34N

F
N

∑ X = 0 = > -F + P = 0 = > P =F = 34N

∑ Y = 0 => N – 67 =0 = > N = 67N

F 34
μ = = = 0.51
N 67

EXAMPLE 2

From the diagram below, find μ.

W = 45N
P = 31N
θ = 330

SOLUTION

Resolving P
Psinθ W = 45N
31N
Pcosθ
31N

F
N
3

18
∑ X = 0 = > Pcosθ -F = 0 = > F = Pcosθ

∑ Y = 0 => N + Psinθ - W =0 = > N = W – Psinθ

F Pcosθ 31cos33 26
μ = = = = = 0.9
N W – Psinθ 45−31sin33 28.12

EXAMPLE 3

50N of force inclined at an angle of 530 with horizontal to the 6kg box, if μ = 0.3,
Find the acceleration of the box.

SOLUTION
Psinθ W = 60N
31N
P = 50N Pcosθ
θ = 53
0 31N
6 kg

F
N
Note: 6kg = 60N 3

Note: the box is in equilibrium in the Y direction

∑ Y = 0 => N + Psinθ - W = 0 = > N = W – Psinθ

N = 60 – 50sin53 = 20.07N

Note: the box is not in equilibrium in the X direction because the box is in motion
i.e. ΣX ≠ 0

F = μN = 20.07 x 0.3 = 6.02N

But Pcosθ > F

Therefore; there is motion and acceleration in this direction.

Fnet = 30 – 6.02 = 23.98 (Resultant force in the X direction)

19
 F 23.98
But F = ma => a = = = 0.399 = 0.4m/s 2
M 60

EXAMPLE 4

A person pushes a 30kg shopping cart up a 100 inclined with a force of 85N.
calculate μ if the cart is pulled at a constant speed. (take g = 10m/s2)

SOLUTION

P
P
Y
mgsinθ
mgcosθ
θ N θ

mg

∑ Y = 0 => N - mgcosθ = 0 = > N = mgcosθ

∑ X = 0 = > - P +F + mgsinθ = 0 = > P = F + mgsinθ

F = P – mgsinθ = > μN = P – mgsinθ

P − mgsinθ 85 − (30 x10)sin10 32.91

μ= = = = 0.11
mgcosθ (30 x 10)cos10 295.44

EXAMPLE 5

What force is necessary to pull a 220N wooden box at a constant speed over a
wooden floor by a rope that makes an angle of 300 above the horizontal, as shown
in the figure below (μK = 0.3, W = 220N)

20
SOLUTION

Psinθ W = 220N
31N
P=? Pcosθ
220N θ = 30
0 31N

FK
FN
31

F K = μK F N

∑ X = 0 = > - FK + Pcosθ = 0 = > FK = Pcosθ

∑ Y = 0 => FN + Psinθ – W = 0 = > FN = W - Psinθ

But FK = μFN

FK = μK (W - Psinθ)

Pcosθ = μK (W - Psinθ) = μKW - μKPsinθ

Pcosθ + μKPsinθ = μKW

P(cosθ + μKsinθ) = μKW

μK W 0.3 x 220
P= = = 65N
cosθ+μK sinθ cos30+0.3sin30

EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium is the status of a body when it is subjected to a system of forces. We

know that for a system of forces acting on a body the resultant can be determined by
Newton’s second law of motion, the body will move in the direction of the resultant
with some acceleration. If the resultant force is equal to zero, It implies that the net
effect of the system of forces is zero this represent the state of equilibrium. For a
system of coplanar concurrent forces, for the resultant to be zero, hence.

21
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 , ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 , ∑ 𝑀 = 0

The Resultant(R) force is that single force which acting alone will have the same
effect in magnitude and direction as two or more forces acting together.

Equilibriant(E) is a single force which when added to a system of forces brings the
status of equilibrium. Hence this force is of the same magnitude as the resultant.

Q R

P
E

EXAMPLE 1

Find the magnitude of the resultant force between the forces of 48N and 60N acting
on a point A. the angle between the forces is 500.

SOLUTION
B
C

48N

500
A 60N D

From the plane geometry, the adjacent angles in a parallelogram are supplementary,
i.e. their sum equals 1800.

Using Cosine Rule

R2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcosθ => R = √ a2 + b 2 − 2abcosθ

22
R = √ 482 + 602 − 2(48)(60)cos130 = 98N

EXAMPLE 2

Two forces are pulling an object along the ground. One force is 10N[W] and the
other 8N[S]. sketch the diagram showing the resultant of the two forces, and
determine the resultant.

SOLUTION

N 10N

8N
R

R2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcosθ => R = √ a2 + b 2 − 2abcosθ

R = √ 82 + 102 − 2(8)(10)cos90 = 13N

ANALYSIS AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

FV F
F FV
θ θ
FH FH

From elementary trigonometry

𝐹𝐻
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ => 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝐹
𝐹𝑉
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ => 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝐹

23
FH – Horizontal component

FV – vertical component

EXAMPLE 1

Determine the forces in the plane pin-jointed frame work shown below.

Free Body Diagram

F1
F1
300
F2 5 kN
60 0 F2
5 kN

SOLUTION

Assume all unknown forces in each member are in tension i.e. the internal forces in
each member is pulling away from it’s nearest joint. (Note: a negative force indicates
a member in compression).

∑ Y = 0 => 5 + F2cos300 = 0

−5
𝐹2 = = −5.77𝑘𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠30

∑X = 0 => F1 + F2sin30 = 0 => F1 = -F2sin30 = -(-5.77)sin30

F1 = 2.887kN

ALTERNATE METHOD

Using Sine rule C F2

a 5 kN
b
600
c B F1
A

24
 a b c 5 F1 5sin30
= = => = => F1 = = 2.887kN
sinA sinB sinC sin60 sin30 sin60

5 F2 5sin90
= => F2 = = 5.77kN
sin60 sin90 sin60

EXAMPLE 2

From the plane pin jointed frame below, determine the forces

A C
HA

2.3 m

B F
HB D
2.2 m 1.1 m
RB 7 kN

SOLUTION

Determine angle CBF and FDC

2.3
Tanθ = = 1.05 => CBF = tan-1(1.05) = 46.260
2.2

2.3
Tanθ = = 2.091 => FDC = tan-1(2.091) = 64.440
1.1

Consider joint D to determine FCD and FDF

FCD

64.440
FBD

7 kN
25
∑Y = 0
7
-7 + FCD sin64.44 = 0 => FCD = = 7.76kN
sin64.44

∑X = 0

-FBD – FCD cos64.44 = 0 => FBD = -FCD cos64.44 = -7.76 cos64.44 = -3.35kN

i.e. FBD = -3.35kN

Consider joint C

FAC
43.740 25.560

FBC FCD

Consider joint C to determine FBC and FAC

∑Y = 0

-FCD cos25.56 - FBC cos43.74 = 0

−𝐹𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝑜𝑠25.56 −7.76𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠25.56

FBC = = = −9.69kN
cos43.74 cos43.74

∑X = 0

-FAC – FBC sin43.74 +FCD sin25.56 = 0

FAC = -FBC sin43.74 + FCD sin25.56

FAC = -(-9.69) sin43.74 + 7.76sin25.56 = 10.05kN

i.e. FAC = 10.05kN

26
Verification

∑𝑋 = 0 , ∑𝑌 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0

∑ 𝑌 = 0 => RB – 7 = 0 => RB = 7 kN

∑ 𝑋 = 0 => HA + HB = 0 => HA = FAC = 10.05 kN

HB = FBD + FBC cos46.26 = -3.35 – 9.69 cos46.26 = -10.05 kN

HB = -10.05 kN

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 => 7 x 3.3 - HA x 2.3 = 0

 23.1 -23.1 = 0

EXAMPLE 3

Truss ABC has a span of 5m. it is carrying a load of 10 kN at it’s apex. Find the
forces in the members AB, AC and BC respectively.

10 kN
A

B 600 C
300

1.25m 3.75m
RB RC

SOLUTION

Taking moment at point B

RC x 5 – 10 x 1.25 = 0
10 𝑥 1.25
RC = = 2.5 𝑘𝑁
5

27
∑ 𝑌 = 0 => RB + RC – 10 = 0

RB = 10 - 2.5 = 7.5 kN

First consider joint B, let the direction of FAB and FBC be assumed to be acting in
tension.
FAB

600
FBC

7.5 kN

∑ 𝑌 = 0 => 7.5 + FAB sin60 = 0

−7.5
FAB = = −8.68 kN
sin60

∑ 𝑋 = 0 => FBC + FAB cos60 = 0

FBC = - FAB cos60 = - ( - 8.660) cos60 = 4.33 kN

Consider joint C
FAC

300
FBC
2.5 kN

∑ 𝑌 = 0 => 2.5 + FAC sin30 = 0

−2.5
FAC = = −5 kN
sin30

EXAMPLE 4

Calculate the resultant of five coplanar forces of values 10N, 12N, 16N, 20N, 15N
acting on an object at O as shown in the figure below.

28
 Y
12N
20N

400 500
10N X
0
30
15N
16N

SOLUTION

The forces are resolved into the horizontal and vertical components as shown in the
table below

Inclination to the Horizontal Vertical

Force(N)
horizontal Component Component
10 0 10cos0 = +10.00 10sin0 = 0
12 50 12cos50 = +7.71 12sin50 = +9.19
20 40 -20cos40 = -15.32 20sin40 = +12.85
16 90 16cos90 = 0 -16sin90 = -16.00
15 60 15cos60 = +7.50 -15sin60 = -12.99
ΣFX = +9.8N ΣFY = -6.95N

𝑅 = √𝐹𝑋 2 + 𝐹𝑌 2 = √9.892 + 6.952 = 12.09𝑁

FX = 9.80N
α = 35.10
6.95
𝑡𝑎𝑛α = = > α = 35.1
9.89

FY = -6.95N

29
EXAMPLE 5

From the figure below, P is directed at an angle α from x – axis and the 200N force
is acting at a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal.

a. Find P and α if the resultant is 500N to the right along the x – axis.
b. Find P and α if the resultant is 500N upward to the right with a slope of
3 horizontal to 4 vertical.
c. Find P and α if the resultant is zero.
Y P

α
X
5
12
200N

SOLUTION

a.

P 200N
𝜃 α
R = 500N
5
12

5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = 0.417 => 𝜃 = tan−1 0.417 = 22.6°
12

Using cosine rule

𝑃2 = 2002 + 5002 − 2(200)(500)𝑐𝑜𝑠22.6 = 105357.96

𝑃 = √105357.96 = 324.59𝑁

30
By sine rule

200 324.59 200 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛22.6

= => 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = => 𝛼 = 13.70°
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛22.6 324.59

b.
Y
Y 500N
P
4
3
θ
α
X
X
5
12
200N
4
tan 𝜃 = => 𝜃 = 53.13°
3

Resultant Resolution

Rx = 300N; Ry = 400N

∑X = 0

300 = Pcosα + 200cos22.6

300 = Pcosα + 184.64

115.36
Pcosα = 115.36N => 𝑃= ……….. (1)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

∑𝑌 = 0

400 =Psinα – 200sin22.6

400 = Psinα – 76.9

476.9
Psinα = 476.9 => 𝑃 = …….. (2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Equating (1) and (2)

31
115.36 476.9
= => 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 4.134
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

115.36
𝛼 = 76.4° , 𝑃 = = 491𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠76.4

c.

P = 200N
α
0
22.6
22.60
5
12

P = 200N
𝑃 = 200𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝛼 = 157.4°

GRAPHICAL RESOLUTION OF FORCES

LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES
it states that, if three forces meeting at a point are in equilibrium, they may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle drawn to scale.

Example 1
Determine the tension in the two string L and R in the figure shown below.

Free Body Diagram

L
0 1200 R
L 120 R
135 0
1050 1350
1050

100N
Solution 100N

Point O is in equilibrium under the action of three forces as shown in the free body diagram. So,
the triangle of law of forces must apply. Draw a line “ab” parallel to the force of 100N to a suitable
scale. From “b” draw a line parallel to string L. from “a” draw a line parallel to string R. the two
lines intersect at point c. the length of line “bc” gives the tension in the string L and “ca” gives
tension in string R.

32
Scale: 10N = 1cm; 100N = 10cm

a
R

c 100N
L

Example 2

A rigid rod is hinged to a vertical support and held at 600 to the horizontal by means of a string
when a weight of 250N is suspended as shown. Determine the tension in the string and the
compression in the rod. Ignoring the weight of the rod.

Solution
Tie a
0
75
250N
300 300
750 Strut
250N
250N
c
600 130N
250N b
1500

Example 3

Two rods of wood supported by a hinge at the top and supported by two concrete blocks.
Determine the compression in the rod ignoring their own weight.

Solution
Free Body Diagram

L1 600 600 L2
a
300 300
50N 5m = 50N
600
50N
c
600 5m = 50N

b
33
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

With Newton’s laws of motion we begin the study of how motion occurs in the real
world. The study of the causes of motion is called Dynamics or Mechanics. The
relationship between force and acceleration was given by Isaac Newton in his three
laws of motion, which forms the basics of elementary physics.

1) Newton’s First Law: it states “Everybody continues in it’s state of rest or

uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to do so by a force
acting on it”. It helps in defining a force.
2) Newton’s Second Law: it states that the rate of change of momentum is
directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of
the applied force.
m
F = ma = kg. = 1N
s2
3) Newton’s Third Law: it states that for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

Consider a body weighing W resting on a plane, the body exerts a force W on the
plane and in turn the plane exerts an equal and opposite reaction on the body.
W
Body

Plane

R
Imagine a person on an ice rink with absolutely no friction between the states and
the ice. If he was moving, he would be unable to neither slow down nor speed up.
The person could only change his motion if an external force was applied to him.
This is an example of Newton’s first law.

34
In reality the external force is obtained by finding friction with the ice by digging
the skates into the ice and pushing or breaking. The force produces changes in the
motion of the skater. Using friction to either accelerate or decelerate is an application
of the second law.

The same principle is applied to a space vehicle. There is no friction in space and
the only way to change the motion of a space vehicle is to eject matter from a rocket
so that the reaction force acts on the vehicle and it’s motion.

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

Impulse: This is defined as the product of force and the time for which it is applied.
An impulse is a vector quantity.

Momentum: This is defined as the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector

quantity pointing in the direction of the velocity.

From Newton’s Second Law;

𝑣−𝑢 ∆𝑢
F = ma , 𝑎= =
𝑡 𝑡

𝑚∆𝑢
𝐹= => 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑢
𝑡

Where:

Ft = impulse

mu = momentum

Thus, to change an object’s momentum, all we have to do is to apply a force for a

particular time interval. From the equation above, an impulse produces a change in
momentum of a body.

35
 COLLISION

When bodies collide they must exert equal and opposite force on each other for the
same period of time so the impulse given to each other is equal and opposite. Since
the impulse is equal to the rate of change of momentum, it follows that each body
will receive equal and opposite changes in their momentum. It further follows that
the momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision.
This result in the law of conservation of momentum.

The law states that the total momentum before a collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision.

Consider two bodies of mass m1 and m2 moving at velocities u1 and u2 in the same
direction. After collision the velocity changes to v1 and v2 respectively.

m1 m2 m1 m2
after
u1 u2 v1 v2

By the law of conservation, we have

𝑚2 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 = =
𝑚1 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )

ENERGY CONSIDERATION

The law of conservation of momentum is true regardless of any energy changes that
may occur. However, in order to solve the velocities, we must consider the energy
changes and the easiest case is when no energy is lost at all. The only energy form
to be considered is kinetic energy (K.E).

𝑚1 𝑢21 𝑚2 𝑢2 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = +
2 2
36
 𝑚1 𝑣 21 𝑚2 𝑣 2 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = +
2 2

EXAMPLE 1

A car has a velocity of 25m/s and accelerated uniformly to 45m/s in 10s. what is the
acceleration.

SOLUTION

𝑣−𝑢 45−25
𝑎= = = 2𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10

EXAMPLE 2

A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of 30m/s
after 5secs. It maintained the velocity for 15secs and is then brought to rest in 10secs
with a uniform acceleration.

Determine;

a. The acceleration of the car.

b. The retardation.
c. The distance covered after 5secs.
d. The total distance covered.

SOLUTION

The movement of the car can be broken into three stages.

First stage

u = 0 , v =30m/s, t = 5 secs

𝑣−𝑢 30−0
𝑎= = = 6𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 5

37
 𝑣 2 + 𝑢2 302 + 02
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑎𝑠 => 𝑠 = = = 75𝑚 or
2𝑎 2𝑥6

1 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑎𝑡 2 ) = 0 + (6𝑥52 ) = 75𝑚
2 2

Second Stage

a = 0 , u = 30m/s , t = 15secs

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑎𝑡 2 ) = (30 𝑥 15) + 0 = 450𝑚
2

Third Stage

u = 30m/s , v = 0 , t = 10secs

𝑣−𝑢 0−30
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 => 𝑎 = = = −3𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10

𝑣 2 + 𝑢2 02 + 302
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑎𝑠 => 𝑠 = = = 150𝑚
2𝑎 2𝑥(−3)

d. a = 6m/s2 - from first stage

e. –a = 3 m/s2 (retardation) – from third stage
f. S = 75m – distance covered after 5secs – from first stage
g. Total distance covered s =75 + 45 + 150 = 675m

Alternative approach using velocity time graph

V(m/s)

30m/s

2nd
1st 3rd

0 5s 20s 30s T(secs)

38
 a) Acceleration is the slope of the curve in the first stage of movement

30−0
𝑎= = 6𝑚/𝑠 2
5−0

b) Retardation is the slope of the curve at the third stage of the movement
0 − 30
𝑎= = −3𝑚/𝑠 2
30 − 20
c) The distance covered after 5secs is the area of the graph at first stage.
1
𝑠= 𝑥 50 𝑥 30 = 75𝑚
2
d) The total distance covered is the area under the graph
1 1
𝑠= (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ = (15 𝑥 30) 𝑥 30 = 675𝑚
2 2

EXAMPLE 3

A mass of 100kg moves along a straight line at 1m/s. it collides with a mass of 150kg
moving the opposite way along the same straight line at 0.6m/s. The two masses join
together on colliding to form one mass. Determine their common velocity.

SOLUTION

Note: motion from left to right is positive whereby motion from right to left is
negative.
V2 = 0.6m/s
V1 = 1m/s

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

m1u1 + m2u2 = v (m1 + m2)

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 (100 𝑥 1)+( 150 𝑥 (−0.6)) 10

𝑣= = = = 0.04𝑚/𝑠
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 100+ 150 250

39
The combined mass ends up moving to the left at 0.04m/s

EXAMPLE 4

Two bodies of masses 30kg and 20kg moving at 6m/s and 2m/s respectively in the
same direction collide and continue to move together. Find

a. The lost K.E due to collision

b. The percentage lost in energy

SOLUTION

First Question: First we determine their common velocity

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 (30 𝑥 6)+( 20 𝑥 2) 220

𝑣= = = = 4.4𝑚/𝑠
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 30+ 20 50

1 1 1 1
Initial K. E before collision = (𝑚1 𝑢12 ) + (𝑚2 𝑢22 ) = (30 𝑥 62 ) + (20 𝑥 22 ) = 580 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2 2 2 2

1 1
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2 = (20 + 30) 𝑥 4.42 = 484 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2 2

Loss in K.E due to collision = 580 – 484 = 96J

Second question:
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 96
% 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 16.6 %
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾.𝐸 580

40
 DETERMINATION OF FORCES IN SIMPLE FRAMES

We are going to consider four (4) methods in determining forces in a simple frame.

a. Joint method
b. Section method (Ritter Method, August Ritter German scientist)
c. Graphical method
d. Coefficient method

a. Joint Method

Consider each joint and apply the equation of static equilibrium for each joint.

Assume that each member of the structure is in tension, when isolating them and
while drawing the free body diagram.

EXAMPLE 1

From the frame shown below, determine the forces in the members respectively.

25kN 10kN
F E D
15kN

2m

A B C

20kN

2m 2m

41
SOLUTION
Y
Free body diagram
X

25kN 10kN
F E D
15kN

2m

A B C
HC
VA 20kN VC

2m 2m

To determine the reaction using equation of equilibrium

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 , ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 , ∑ 𝑀 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => HC – 15 = 0 => HC = 15kN

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => VA + VC -20 -25 -10 = 0

=> VA + VC = 55……………..(1)

∑ 𝑀 = 0 => VA x 4 – (25 x4) – (10 x 2) – (20 x 2) – (15 x2) =0

4VA - 100 - 20 – 40 – 30 = 0

4VA =190 => VA = 47.5 kN

From equation (1)

VA + VC = 55 => VC = 55 - VA = 55 – 47 = 7.5kN

42
Note: Always commence your calculation from the point you have your unknown
not exceeding 2.

To determine FFE and FAE, consider joint F.

25kN

FFE

FAF

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => - 25 - FAF = 0 => FAF = - 25kN (compression)

To determine FAE and FAB consider joint A

FAF
FFE
θ

VA

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => FAF + VA + FAE sin45 = 0

−FAF − VA −(−25)− 47.5

FAE = = = −31.82kN (compression)
sin45 sin45

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => FAE cos45 + FAB = 0

FAB = - FAE cos45 = -(- 31.82) cos45 = 22.5kN (tension)

To determine FBE and FBC consider joint B

FBE

FAB FBC

20kN

43
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => FBE -20 = 0 => FBE = 20kN

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => -FAB + FBC = 0 => FAB = FBC =22.5kN

To determine FDE and FCE consider joint E

10kN

FFE FDE
450 450
FAE FCE
FBE

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => -10 - FBE - FAE cos45 - FCE cos45 = 0

− 10− FBE − FAE cos45 − 10− 20− 31.82 cos45

FCE = = = −10.61kN
cos45 cos45

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => -FFE + FDE – FAE sin45 + FCE sin45 = 0

FDE = + FAE sin45 - FCE sin45 +FFE = (- 31.82 sin45) – (- 10.61 sin45) + 0 = -15kN

FDE = - 15kN

To determine FCD consider joint C

FCE FCD

450
FBC HC

VC

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => FCD + 7.51 + FCE sin45 = 0

FCD = -7.51 – (- 10.61) sin45 = 0.0024 ≈ 0

FCD = 0 kN

44
EXAMPLE 2

The frame shown below is pinned at A & B. Determine the forces in the members
respectively using joint method.

HA A C

1m

HB E
B D 10kN
10kN
RB
1.2m 1.5m

SOLUTION

To determine FDE and FCE consider joint E

FCE
33.690
FDE

10kN

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => -10 + FCE sin 33.690 = 0

10
FCE = = 18 kN
sin33.69

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => - FDE – FCE cos 33.69 = 0

FDE = – FCE cos 33.69 = - 18 cos 33.69 = - 14.98kN

To determine FCD and FBD, consider joint D

FCD

FBD -14.98kN
45
10kN
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => FCD – 10 = 0 => FCD = 10kN

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => - FBD + FDE = 0

FBD = FDE = -14.98 kN

To determine FAC and FBC, consider Joint C

FAC
50.190 56.130

FBC FCE

10 kN

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => -18 cos 56.13 – 10 - FCB cos 50.19 = 0

− 18 cos56.13−10
FBC = = −31.29 kN
cos 50.19

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => -FAC - FBC sin 50.19 + 18 sin 56.13 = 0

FAC = - (- 31.29) sin 50.19 + 18 sin 56.13 = 38.99kN

FAC = 38.99 kN

Verification/Check

Ha = FAC = 38.99 ≈ 39kN

HB = FBD + FBC cosθ = 14.98 + 31.29 cos 39.81 ≈ 39kN

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => RA – 10 – 10 = 0 => RA = 20kN checked

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => HA = HB checked

46
 b. Section method

This method involves determining the reactive forces at the supports, decomposing
it into two different portion by passing an imaginary cutting plane/ section through
the structure. It is particularly suitable when it is necessary to find forces in only a
few members of a truss.

Example 1

From the diagram below, determine forces in the members DE, CE and BC
respectively using section method.

25kN 10kN
F E D
15kN

2m

A B C

20kN

2m 2m

Solution

25kN 10kN
F E D
15kN

2m

A B C
HC
VA 20kN VC

2m 47 2m
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 => HC – 15 = 0 => HC = 15kN

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 => VA + VC -20 -25 -10 = 0 => VA + VC = 55kN……..(1)

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 => VA x 4 – 100 - 20 - 40 - 30 = 0

VA = 47.5 kN

From eqn (1)

VA + VC = 55kN => VC = 55 – 47.5 = 7.5kN

10 kN
25 kN

FDE
450
FCE

20 kN FBC
47.5 kN

To determine FBC, take moment at E

- FBC x 2 – (25 x 2) + (47.5 x 2) = 0

FBC = 22.5kN

To determine FDE, take moment at C

(FDE x 2) – (10 x 2) + (25 x 4) - (20 x 2) + (47.5 x 4) = 0

FDE = - 15kN

To determine FCE take moment at B

(FDE x 2) + (FCE sin45 x 2) - (25 x 2) + (47.5 x 4) = 0

(-15 x 2) + (FCE sin45 x 2) - (25 x 2) + (47.5 x 4) = 0

48
FCE = - 10.61kN

EXAMPLE 2

From the diagram below, determine forces in the member AC, BC and BD
respectively using section method.

HA A C

1m

HB E
B D 10kN
10kN
RB
1.2m 1.5m

SOLUTION

To find FBD, take moment at C

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 => (FBD x 1) + (10 x 1.5) = 0 = > FBD = -15 kN

To find FCA, take moment at B

- (FCA x 1) + (10 x 1.2) + (10 x 2.7) = 0 => FCA = 39kN

To determine FBC, take moment at D

(- FCA x 1) – (FCB x 0.768) + (10 x 1.5) =0

FCB = -31.25kN

49
 FAC
50.190

FBC

FBD
10 kN 10 kN

c. Method of Tension Coefficient

This method is particularly useful in the case of pin jointed three dimensional or
space frames. The basis of this method is the resolution into component of external
and internal forces acting on each joint of the frame, using the length of the members

and the coordinates of the joint. All the members of the frame are initially assumed
to be in tension.
Y
B(XB,YB)
(YB - YA)

A(XA,YA) (Xb -XA)

TAB – Subjected tension

LAB – Length of AB

XA, YA – Coordinates

Resolving in X direction

XB − XA TAB
TAB ( ) = (XB − XA )
LAB LAB

TAB
= t AB => tab – tension coefficient
LAB

50
t AB (XB − XA ) − resolution in X

t AB (YB − YA ) − resolution in Y

EXAMPLE 1

A load 7.2 kN is suspended from a soffit by two ropes PQ and PR. Determine the
forces in the ropes using tension coefficient method.
1.8m 3.2m

P R

2.4m

Q
7.2kN

SOLUTION

The equation for joint Q (i.e. assuming the origin of the coordinate is at Q)

In x => direction = - 1.8tPQ + 3.2tQR = 0 ……………(1)

In y => direction = 2.4tPQ + 2.4tQR – 7.2 = 0 ……………(2)

From (1)
3.2
𝑡𝑃𝑄 = 𝑡𝑄𝑅 = 1.778𝑡𝑄𝑅 … … … . . (3)
1.8

Substitute (3) in (2)

2.4 (1.778 𝑡𝑄𝑅 ) + 2.4 𝑡𝑄𝑅 − 7.2 = 0

𝑡𝑄𝑅 = 1.08

From (3)

𝑡𝑃𝑄 = 1.778𝑡𝑄𝑅 = 1.778 𝑥 1.08 = 1.92

51
 𝑇𝑃𝑄 = 𝑡𝑄𝑅 𝑥 𝐿𝑃𝑄 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐿𝑃𝑄 = √2.42 + 1.82 = 3𝑚

𝑇𝑃𝑄 = 1.92 𝑥 3 = 5.76𝑘𝑁

𝑇𝑄𝑅 = 1.08 𝑥 √2.42 + 3.22 = 4.32𝑘𝑁

EXAMPLE 2

From the diagram below, determine the forces in AB, AC and AD respectively using
the tension coefficient method.
Z
Y
+Z
+X D A
2m
C A 21 kN
3m
2m
B

C B
2m 2m 2m 2m

SOLUTION

The three equation for joint A

𝑖𝑛 𝑥 => 2𝑡𝐴𝐵 − 2𝑡𝐴𝐷 = 0 … … . . (1)

𝑖𝑛 𝑦 => 3𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐷 + 21 = 0 … … . . (2)

𝑖𝑛 𝑧 => 2𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 4𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 2𝑡𝐴𝐷 = 0 … … . . (3)

From (1)

2𝑡𝐴𝐵 − 2𝑡𝐴𝐷 = 0

𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡𝐴𝐷 … … (4)

From (3)

52
2𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 4𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 2𝑡𝐴𝐷 = 0

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡𝐴𝐷

2𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 4𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 2𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 0

𝑡𝐴𝐵 = −𝑡𝐴𝐶 … … (5)

From (2)

3𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐷 + 21 = 0

−3𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 3𝑡𝐴𝐷 + 21 = 0

𝑡𝐴𝐷 = −7

∴ 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = −𝑡𝐴𝐶 = 7 … … 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (5)

𝑡𝐴𝐷 = 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = −7 … … 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (4)

𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡𝐴𝐵 𝑥 𝐿𝐴𝐵 = −7 𝑥 √22 + 22 + 32 = −28.8𝑘𝑁

𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 7 𝑥 √42 + 32 = 35𝑘𝑁

𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 𝑡𝐴𝐷 𝑥 𝐿𝐴𝐷 = −7 𝑥 √22 + 22 + 32 = −28.8𝑘𝑁

53