COMPACTION OF SOIL

WHAT IS SOIL COMPACTION?

It is the densification, the reduction in void ratio of a soil through expulsion of
air. It is normally achieved by mechanical means, with the use of rollers,
rammers and so on.
WHY DO WE COMPACT?

 To increase the load-bearing capacity of soil

 To prevent soil settlement and frost damage
 To provide stability
 To reduce water seepage, swelling and contraction
 To reduce settling of soil
TYPES OF COMPACTION EFFORT ON SOIL

 Use of vibration - Vibratory force uses a mechanism, usually engine-

driven, to create a downward force in addition to the machine’s static
weight. The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating eccentric weight or
piston/spring combination (in rammers). The compactors deliver a rapid
sequence of blows (impacts) to the surface, thereby affecting the top
layers as well as deeper layers. Vibration moves through the material,
setting particles in motion and moving them closer together for the
highest density possible. Based on the materials being compacted, a
certain amount of force must be used to overcome the cohesive nature of
particular particles.

 Use of Static force - Static force is simply the deadweight of the machine,
applying downward force on the soil surface, compressing the soil
particles. The only way to change the effective compaction force is by
adding or subtracting the weight of the machine. Static compaction is
confined to upper soil layers and is limited to any appreciable depth.
Kneading and pressure are two examples of static compaction.

RESPONSE OF TYPES OF SOIL TO COMPACTION

Every soil type behaves differently with respect to maximum density and
optimum moisture. Therefore, each soil type has its own unique requirements
and controls both in the field and for testing purposes. Soil types are
commonly classified by grain size, determined by passing the soil through a
series of sieves to screen or separate the different grain sizes. Soil classification
is categorized into 15 groups, a system set up by AASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials). Soils found in
nature are almost always a combination of soil types. A well-graded soil
consists of a wide range of particle sizes with the smaller particles filling voids
between larger particles. The result is a dense structure that lends itself well to
compaction.
A soil’s makeup determines the best compaction method to use. There are
three basic soil groups:
■ Cohesive - Cohesive soils have the smallest particles. Clay has a particle size
range of .00004" to .002". Silt ranges from .0002" to .003". Clay is used in
embankment fills and retaining pond beds.
Characteristics: Cohesive soils are dense and tightly bound together by
molecular attraction. They are plastic when wet and can be molded, but
become very hard when dry. Proper water content, evenly distributed, is critical
for proper compaction. Cohesive soils usually require a force such as impact or
pressure. Silt has a noticeably lower cohesion than clay. However, silt is still
heavily reliant on water content.
■ Granular - Granular soils Granular soils range in particle size from .003"
to .08" (sand) and .08" to 1.0" (fine to medium gravel). Granular soils are
known for their water-draining properties.
Characteristics: Sand and gravel obtain maximum density in either a fully dry
or saturated state. Testing curves are relatively flat so density can be obtained
regardless of water content. The tables on the following pages give a basic
indication of soils used in particular construction applications.

■ Organic (this soil is not suitable for compaction) - Organic deposits

accumulate in marshes, bogs and swamps by decaying of water loving plants
such as mosses, grasses, pondweeds, shrubs and trees since generations.
Microorganisms break down the organic tissues and aid in the synthesis of
organic matter and humus.

Characteristics: Its cohesion and plasticity are low compared to mineral soils.
Organic soils are therefore, porous, open and easy to cultivate. The bulk
density of organic soils is quite low in comparison to mineral soils. Bulk
density of well composed organic soil is only 0.20-0.30 compared to 1.3-1.5 for
mineral soils. Thus, organic soils are light weight when dry.
EFFECT OF MOISTURE TO COMPACTION

It is very important to study the effect of moisture on compaction of soil.

Moisture can transform soil into a plastic state or even into a liquid. In the
liquid state, soil will have no load-bearing ability. Moisture acts as a lubricant
within the soil, sliding the particles together. Too little moisture means
inadequate compaction. Too much moisture leaves water-filled voids and
subsequent weakens the load-bearing ability. The highest density for most soils
is at a certain water content for a given compaction effort. The drier the soil,
the more resistant it is to compaction. In a water-saturated state, the voids
between the particles are partially filled with water, creating an apparent
cohesion that binds them together.

SOIL DENSITY TESTS

To determine if proper soil compaction is achieved for any specific construction
application, soil density test is performed.
Aim of the test

 To measure density of soil for comparing the degree of compaction

against specification
 To measure the effect of moisture on soil density against specification
 To provide a moisture - density curve identifying optimum moisture
TYPES OF TESTS
Standard Proctor test
Apparatus:
 Cylindrical Metal Mold, having internal diameter 4” (10.16 cm) or 6”
(15.24 cm), the internal effective height of 4.6” (11.7 cm); detachable
base plate & collar of 2 inches (5.08 cm).
 Rammer, weighing 5.5 lbs (2.5 kg) & having fall of 12 inches (30.5 cm),
with a flat circular face of 2” diameter.
 Sensitive Balance, sensitivity ranging from 0.1 gram to 1 gram.
 Thermostatically controlled oven (105°C +- 110°C); Steel straight edge.
  Moisture containers; Sieve No.4; Tray & scoop; Graduated cylinder;
Mixing tools (spoon, trowel, spatula).

Procedure
1. Take sufficient quantity of representative soil, air dry & pulverize it with a
rubber mallet. Sieve the soil through No: 4 sieve & reject the coarser material.

2. Take about, 3 kg of soil, add water to bring its water content to about 5%
below the estimated optimum moisture content (for coarse-grained soil 4%
initial water content & for fine-grained soil 10% initial water content is
preferable), then Mix it thoroughly.

3. Clean the mold, measure its diameter & height & weigh it without the collar.

4. Fit the collar & compact the moist soil in three equal layers by the rammer
with evenly distributed blows to each layer. Use 25 blows for 4 inches diameter
mold & 56 blows for 6 inches diameter mold to the total height of mold with
collar.

5. Remove the collar trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mold with
a straight steel edge. Clean outside of the mold & base plate & weigh it.

6. Remove the soil from the mold, split it & take about 100 grams sample for
water content determination.

7. Break the soil lamps, mix it with remaining soil in the tray.
Add more water to increase the water content by 2 to 3% & repeat the
compaction procedure for each increment of water until the mass of the
compacted soil decreases.

8. Calculate Water content for each trail & corresponding dry density.

9. Plot the compaction curve between water-content as abscissa & dry density
as ordinate.

10. Note the water content against the peak of the curve as optimum moisture
content & the corresponding dry density as maximum dry density.

Observation and Calculations.

The wet Density or Bulk Density of soil is computed as: 

M
ρb = = Mass of compacted soil/volume of Soil.
V

After determination of moisture content of the soil, the Dry Density of Soil is
ρ
computed as:  ρd = b
1+ w
A sample of the plot is as shown:

Diagram

MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Modified Proctor Compaction Test is generally performed in the
circumstances of heavy consolidation hence also known as Consolidation Test.
Bearing capacity and shear stress are the properties of interest for performing
the Modified Proctor Test.

Need for Modified Proctor Test

 Helps to find out the degree of compaction of various soil types and
properties. This soil compaction is performed to increase the bearing
capacity of soil by improving the density of soil with higher mechanical
forces. This test is also used to find out the correlation between dry
density and soil water content.
 It is done when heavy compaction is needed to improve the shear stress
in the soil by minimizing the compressibility and permeability of the soil.

Apparatus

1. Cylindrical shaped mould having inside diameter about 10 cm and volume

is equal to 1000 cu. cm or inside diameter 15cm and volume is equal to 2250
cu. cm.

2. Oven which is thermostatically controlled and can keep samples at 105°

C and 110° C temperatures continuously.

3. A Sample Extruder Tool; Sieve of standard size – 19 mm, 75 mm,

4. Capacity balance of 15 kg with accuracy of 1 gm.

5. Rammer having 4.5 kg (10 lbs) weight & free fall of 457 mm (18 Inches).

6. Moisture Containers; Straightedge made of steel; weighing balance having

accuracy up to 0.01g

Procedure

 Take around 5 kg of dry soil sample.

 Pass these sample of soil through 19 mm Sieve.
 Add specified % of water by weight of soil sample. Add 3% to 5% water by
weight of soil sample while soil nature is gravel or sandy type and 12 to
15% water by weight of soil sample for cohesive soil like clay soil.
 Measure weight of mold with attached base plate as W1.
 Now, Collar assembly to the mold.
 Fill the mold with soil in 3 layers such that each layers is compacted
with standard rammers 25 blow.
  Compaction of each layers should be done with minimum 45 cm free fall
of
 Apply the rammer which ensure proper compaction of soil in the mold.
 As the soil compaction is finished with the rammer, remove top collar
from the mold and level the soil sample with tool called straightedge.
 Measure the weight of compacted soil with the mold as W2.
 Take out soil sample from mold and spread it on separate tray.
 Collect at least 3 soil sample to determine the water content of soil.
 Repeat above steps by increasing or decreasing amount of water added in
soil sample. Take at least 3 to 5 reading to achieve more accurate result.
 Calculate Dry density of each soil sample and plot a graph between water
content and dry density of soil.

 Water content at highest dry density will give relationship between

maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.

Differences between Standard Proctor Vs Modified Proctor Test

1. In Standard Proctor test soil sample is compacted in 3 layer, whereas in

the Modified Proctor Test soil sample compaction layers are 5.
2. In Modified Proctor Test 4.6 kg rammer is used with a free fall of 450mm
while a lighter rammer of 2.5 kg is used in the Standard Proctor Test
with a free fall of 300mm.
3. A higher value of dry density is obtained in the Modified Proctor test as
compared to the Standard Proctor test.
4. Heavy consolidation requirement is fulfilled in Modified Proctor Test
however in Standard Proctor test low consolidation is obtained.
5. Modified Proctor Test is best suited for structures with high dynamic and
static loadings like skyscrapers and runways, on the other hand,
Standard Proctor Test is suitable for the soil with non-heavy loadings.
6. OMC (Optimum Moisture Content) obtained in Standard Proctor Test is
higher compared to Modified Proctor Test.

CALCULATIONS

Example 1
The following data refer to a compaction test using the 2.5kg rammer
Water 8.5 12.2 13.75 15.5 18.2 20.2
 content
(%)
Mass of 1800 1940 2000 2050 2030 1980
wet
sample
(g)

Given the volume of the mould to be 1000cm 3, plot the compaction curve and
obtain the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the sample.
Solution
Water Water Mass of Volume of wet Bulk density of Dry density of
content (%) content wet sample sample (cm3) sample (g/cm3) sample (g/cm3)
(decimal) (g)
8.5 0.085 1800 1000 1.80 1.67
12.2 0.122 1940 1000 1.94 1.73
13.75 0.1375 2000 1000 2.00 1.76
15.5 0.155 2050 1000 2.05 1.77
18.2 0.182 2030 1000 2.03 1.71
20.2 0.202 1980 1000 1.98 1.65

The graph of dry density values is plotted against moisture content values

MDD = 1.77g/cm3
Dry density Vs Moisture content
1.8
OMC = 15.5%
Dry density (g/cm3)

1.75

1.7 Example 2
Determine the dry and bulk
1.65 density of a soil sample
having a porosity of 0.32
1.6 and a moisture content of
0 5 10 15 20 25%   (Gs = 2.70)
Moisture content (%)
Void ratio
n 0.32
e= = =0.47
1+n 1+ 0.32

Gs ρw 2.70 x 1
Dry density ρd = = =1.84 g /cm 3
1+ e 1+ 0.47
 (
Bulk density ρb =ρd ( 1+w )=1.84 1+
25
100)=2.30 g/cm3

Assignment
Given the results obtained during a compaction test, determine the optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density of the soil.
Mass of 6245 6245 6245 6245 6245 6245
mould (g)
Mass of 8130 8211 8260 8279 8268 8220
mould with
soil sample
(g)
Volume of 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
mould
(cm3)
Mass of 41.20 37.12 40.47 40.35 39.46 40.48
cup and
wet soil (g)
Mass of 39.35 35.18 38.18 37.89 36.82 37.71
cup and
dry soil (g)
Mass of 22.67 20.74 22.84 22.65 21.84 22.37
cup (g)

FIELD COMPACTION
TYPES OF COMPACTING EQUIPMENTS
A large variety of mechanical equipment is available for compaction of soil but
soil type and moisture condition will often dictate the type of equipment and
method of use. Some important compacting equipment are given below: -
1. Light compacting equipment (Rammers/Plate compactors)
2. Smooth wheel rollers
3. Sheep-foot rollers
4. Pneumatic tyre rollers
5. Vibratory rollers
6. Grid rollers
1. Light compacting equipment:

 Rammers: Rammers are the light compacting equipment used for small
areas, which provide impact load. These may be hand or machine
operated. The area of base is normally 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or
more. Free fall rammers can be heavier type also weighing 2 or 3 tones
lifted and dropped by cables to a height of 1 or 2m to compact large rock
fragments. Automatic type operated pneumatically or using petrol
engines lift to a height of 15 to 20 cm before being dropped. Weight of
such tampers can vary from 30 to 10000kg. They are suitable for
compacting cohesive soils as well as other soils

 Plate compactors: These vary in weight from 100 kg to 2 tonne with plate
areas between 0.16 sqm and 1.6 sq cm. Smaller versions are manually
guided and therefore suitable for compacting small or awkwardly shaped
areas. They usually travel at about 0.7 km/h. They are classified in
terms of mass divided by the area of the base in contact with the ground.
  Vibro tampers: Vibro tampers compaction is induced by vibrations set up
in a base plate through a spring activated by an engine driven
reciprocating mechanism. They are usually manually guided and weigh
between 50 and 100 kg. They are best suited for compaction in confined
spaces. They are classified in terms of the static mass of the machine.

2. Smooth wheel rollers:

These rollers have one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on the
rear. The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tones. The weight
of the roller can be increased up to 20 tones by ballasting the inside space of
the roller drums with either water or wet sand. Smooth wheel rollers are useful
for compaction when the material does not require great pressure. These are
also used to finish the upper layers. Smooth wheel rollers are most suitable for
compacting gravels, sand and crushed rock where some crushing action is
required.

3. Sheep-foot roller:
For compacting heavy clays and silty clays, sheep-foot rollers are found to be
very effective. These rollers are employed in road and rail projects. They consist
of steel drum/s on which projecting legs are fixed which may apply pressure
up to 14kg/sqcm or more. Different types of lugs are namely spindle shaped
with widened base, prismatic and clubfoot type. The parameters that really
matter are gross weight of the roller, the area of each foot, the number of lugs
in contact with the ground at any time and total number of feet per drum. As
the roller moves on the soil, its foot penetrates into the soil and exerts
pressure. The pressure is maximum when a foot is vertical. When the roller
moves, the foot which is vertical starts receding and the pressure reduces. The
compaction takes place from the bottom. The nature of compaction applied by
a sheep foot roller is known as kneading.
4. Pad foot/ tamping rollers:
These rollers are similar to sheep-foot rollers with lugs of larger area than
sheep-foot rollers. The static pad foot rollers also called tamping rollers have
static weights in the range of 15 to 12 40 tones and their static linear drum
loads are between 30 and 80 kg/cm. On account of their larger production
capacity, they are replacing sheep-foot rollers. The degree of compaction
achieved is more and there is more uniformity of density. They operate at high
speeds and are capable of even breaking large lumps. They can compact clay
materials from 30 cm to 40 cm thickness. These rollers are best suitable for
compacting cohesive soils.

4. Pneumatic tyred rollers:

Pneumatic tyred rollers are used in both earthwork and bituminous work.
These rollers have wheels on both the axles but they are staggered so that they
can compact the layers with uniform pressure throughout the width. The front
axle may have four pneumatic smooth wheels whereas there can be five wheels
on the rear axles. The two important parameters governing compaction are the
tyre inflation pressure and the area of the contact.

5. Vibratory rollers:
These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-
(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers

Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes
economical due to their higher outputs and improved performance. Vibratory
rollers are similar to smooth wheel rollers with the modification that the drum
or drums are made to vibrate by employing rotating or reciprocating mass.
Considerable research has gone into the development of vibratory rollers, the
capacity of the roller increase, thereby bringing about economy in construction
cost of embankment. The vibratory rollers can either be towed or self-propelled.
Two factors contributing to the improved compaction of soil, sand and sandy
soil by vibration are-

 Elimination of internal friction between particles because of state of

motion of the soil particles.
 Pressure and shear stresses generated by vibratory compactor in the soil.
It is to be noted that pressure imparted by a vibratory roller is partly
static and partly dynamic.
6. Grid rollers:
These rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a network of
steel bars forming a grid with square holes and may be ballasted with concrete
blocks. They are generally towed units and can operate at speeds between 5
and 24 km/hr. Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little kneading
action and are suitable for compacting most coarse grained soils.

A table cropped showing different compaction equipment suitable for different

soil types is presented above.
PROCEDURES FOR UNDERTAKING FIELD COMPACTION

1. Selection of Fill Material and Borrow Area:

The local soil sources are surveyed and samples are collected and tested. The
relative suitability of different soils is determined and suitable borrow area is
selected based on the suitability of soil, availability in required quantity, the
cost of compensation for using the borrow area, and the cost of transportation.
Once the basic properties such as grain size analysis and index properties are
determined, the soil can be classified as per IS – 1498-1970 that also gives the
relative suitability for compaction.
Soils with high plasticity index or large shrinkage ratio should be avoided as
they tend to expand or compress or become too sticky or shrink. Organic
matter that can decay should generally be avoided as fill material unless
special precautions are taken. IS light or heavy compaction tests are conducted
on the selected soil to determine the OMC and MDD. The OMC and MDD serve
as a guide for developing compaction specifications to be achieved in the field.

2. Selection of Field Compaction Equipment

The field equipment can be selected from the list mentioned above.

3. Compaction of Soil in the Field

Compaction equipment can efficiently compact the soil up to a limited depth.
Hence, the fills or embankments are compacted in several layers, called lifts. If
lift thickness is too large, soil at the top of the lift will be well compacted
whereas that at the bottom will not be compacted completely. For certain
compaction equipment, the reverse also happens. For most compaction
equipment, lift thickness should be of the order of 15 cm.
The soil from the borrow area is transported and spread in several layers. The
compacted thickness is about two- third of the loose thickness. Each layer is
compacted by passing the roller over the soil required number of times. About
10-15 passes of the roller are the most efficient and economical ways to achieve
MDD during compaction. After this, the next layer of loose soil is spread and
compacted. The procedure is repeated until the required height of the fill,
embankment, or earth dam is reached.
Water content should be closely monitored during compaction. If the soil gets
too wet, it will be impossible to compact. If the soil is too dry, compaction will
not be effective. Since it is easier to add than remove water, water is added in
increments during the rolling operation.

4. Field Compaction Control

Improper compaction of soil in the field will lead to the dry density of
compacted soil less than the required maximum achievable dry density,
resulting in the following problems:
i. Low shear strength of compacted soil leading to shear failure of the soil and
foundation supported on the compacted soil.
ii. Excess total and differential settlements leading to the failure of foundation
and structures supported on the compacted soil.
iii. Slope failure of slopes of compacted fills, embankments, and earth dams.
iv. Excessive volume changes in the compacted fill in terms of excessive
swelling and shrinkage.
v. Increase of permeability of the compacted fill leading to the loss of water,
failure of hydraulic structures due to piping, etc.
It is, therefore, necessary to adopt proper field compaction control to ensure
that the dry density and the water content of the compacted soil is within
specified limits of MDD and OMC, respectively.

FIELD COMPACTION CONTROL

Parameters for Compaction Specification in the Field:
The parameters used to ensure effective compaction in the field include (a)
relative compaction and (b) placement water content.
(a) Relative Compaction:
Determine the relative compaction using the formula
¿−situ dry density of compacted fill
Relative compaction= lab compaction test ¿ x 100
Max . dry density ¿
to specify the limits of dry density to be achieved for the compacted fill with
respect to the MDD obtained from laboratory
The Engineer-in-charge will specify the relative compaction to be achieved.
For cohesive soils, a relative compaction of 95% of laboratory standard Proctor
test (IS light compaction test) can be achieved using either sheep’s foot rollers
or, in some cases, pneumatic tired rollers.
For cohesion-less soils, a relative compaction of the order of 98%-100% or even
more of modified Proctor feat (IS heavy compaction test) can be achieved using
vibratory rollers or pneumatic tired rollers.

(b) Placement Water Content:

The water content to be used for compacting the soil in the field is known as
placement water content. Usually, a placement water content of ±2% of OMC
obtained from relevant laboratory compaction test is adopted.
Water content different from OMC may be occasionally specified by the
Engineer-in-charge to achieve an intended purpose. Placement water content
less than OMC (dry of optimum) may be specified for highway embankments of
cohesive soils to achieve higher shear strength and lower compressibility.
Similarly, outer shells of earth dams are compacted at a placement water
content dry of optimum (less then OMC) to achieve higher shear strength,
higher permeability, and lower pore pressures.

Objectives of Field Compaction Control:

 To determine the in-situ dry density and water content immediately after
the compaction of each lift and to ensure that it satisfies the limits of
relative compaction and placement water content as per compaction
specifications of the Engineer-in-charge.
 To check and ensure that the soils from the prescribed borrow area,
having the desired properties, are used for compaction.
 To check and ensure that the required compaction energy is used in
compacting the soil.

Certain minimum number of tests are to be done in the field when the
compaction is in progress:
 For large fills - test for every 1000 m2 area/lift
 For small fills - (< 1000 m2 area), two or three tests/lift
 Rapid methods of water content determination are to be used because if
the quality of compaction is not within specified limits of compaction
specification, it is required to remove the corresponding lift and re-lay
Thus, the results of field tests of each lift during field compaction are
required before the next lift is started.
 DETERMINATION OF IN-SITU DENSITY:
The determination of relative compaction requires the following finding:
 In-situ bulk density.
 Field moisture content.
The in-situ density can be computed by any one of the following methods:
 1. Core cutter method.
 2. Sand replacement method.
 3. Rubber balloon method.
Determination of water content of compacted soil can be done by any one of the
following methods:
i. Proctor’s Needle Method:
Principle: The basic principle of Proctor’s needle method is to determine the
water content of compacted soil indirectly without drying the sample based on
the resistance offered by the compacted soil to the penetration of Proctor’s
needle. The Proctor’s needle consists of a needle attached to a spring-loaded
plunger. The needle consists of a needle point attached to the bottom of a
needle shank, as shown below. The needle can be pushed into the compacted
soil by pressing the loading plunger. The needle shank has graduations to read
the penetration of the needle into the compacted soil.

The stem of the loading plunger has graduations to show the resistance offered
by the compacted soil to the penetration of the needle. The loading plunger is
calibrated to indicate the penetration resistance of the compacted soil based on
the deformation of the spring, which depends on the load applied and the
spring constant. Needle points of different cross-sectional areas are supplied
along with the equipment such as 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 cm2 to use in
compacted soils of increasing penetration resistance.

Advantage and Limitations:

 Advantage is that drying of soil is not required for determination of in-
situ water content.
 The limitation is that the actual in-situ compaction conditions are not
truly reflected in the dry density and water content determined by this
method.
 Another serious limitation of the method is that water is added to the soil
prior to compaction of the soil, whereas water is added in installments
during field compaction.

ii. Nuclear Method:

The nuclear method is a rapid, non-destructive method for in-situ
determination of bulk density and water content. As the test is non-destructive,
it does not require cutting the sample from the compacted fill. Hence a large
number of measurements can be made at every location and the accuracy can
be verified and improved using statistical analysis.
Equipment:
Several nuclear gauges are now available; example is shown below
Principle:
For In-Situ Density:
Gamma rays are emitted into soil which are scattered by the electrons in the
soil and lose energy. The scattered rays are detected by the detector. The
higher the density of soil, the higher will be the density of electrons and fewer
scattered rays reach the detector. The nuclear gauge is calibrated to read the
density of the soil based on the number of scattered rays reaching the detector.

For In-Situ Moisture Content:

Fast neutrons are emitted from a fast neutron radioactive source into the soil.
Neutron collision with those of soil result in energy loss. The energy loss is high
in neutron collisions with atoms of low atomic weight, changing the fast
neutron to a slow neutron. Hydrogen present in soil water causes this energy
loss. The number of slow neutrons detected by the gauge after emission of fast
neutrons is counted and is proportional to the amount of hydrogen and hence
water present in the soil.
The nuclear gauge is user-friendly and the interface is through simple queries in either
way. The gauge should be checked for precision once in a week, or whenever there is a
change in test location.

Limitations:
1. The nuclear gauge is more sensitive to the density of soil close to the surface
in back-scatter method. Large size rocks or voids in the source-detector path
may cause higher or lower density determination than the actual density.
2. The moisture content determination is based on the assumption that the
hydrogen present in the soil is in the form of water. Hydrogen in other
forms or carbon, if present in the soil, will cause higher water content than the
actual water content.
3. Boron, chlorine or even small quantities of cadmium will cause lower
measurement of water content than the actual value.
4. The nuclear gauge utilizes radioactive materials which are hazardous to the
users unless proper precautions are taken.
Precautions:
1. Every nuclear gauge should be supplied with effective user instructions with
safety procedures, including radioactive source leak tests.
2. All external neutron and radioactive sources should be kept away from the
gauge to avoid effect on the precision of the measurements.

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a measure of the strength of the
subgrade of a road or other paved area, and of the materials used in its
construction. The ratio is measured using a standardized penetration test first
developed by the California Division of Highways for highway engineering.
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with
standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the
corresponding penetration of a standard material.
Test Load
CBR= x 100
Standard Load
What are the typical CBR values? The harder the material, the higher the CBR
value. A CBR value of 2% is usually found for clay, high-quality sub-base will
have CBR values between 80% and 100%, and some sands may have values
around 10%.
The minimum CBR value of a sub-base soil should be 20% and 30% for
traffic up to 2 msa and traffic exceeding 2 msa respectively. Also, the
minimum CBR value for a subgrade soil is usually 6%, although subgrade
characterization recommends 10% 
In flexible pavements, different kinds of layers are used to withstand the traffic
load. CBR value is required to determine the thickness of those layers,
especially for base and subgrade materials.
For lower CBR, the thickness of layers will be higher and vice versa.
If the CBR value of a material is too low, the layer thickness will be much
higher. It would not be cost-effective to work with that material.
CBR Laboratory Test Preparation
Sample preparation takes up most of the time required for testing CBR samples
in the geotechnical laboratory. Materials proposed for the project are sampled
and processed in the laboratory into a series of test specimens.
Preparation takes place using the same or similar steps found in method C of
ASTM D698 or D1557 (AASHTO T 99 and T 180) moisture/density
relationship (Proctor) tests. The specifier of the CBR test may request changes
to the dry density of the specimens. Changing the required number of blow
counts will adjust the dry density. Spacer discs, surcharge weights, and other
apparatus to measure expansion are also necessary.
The test mostly applies to cohesive materials with maximum particle sizes less
than 19 mm (0.75 in) but can also be used to evaluate the strength of granular
soils and aggregates. For most methods, three to five samples are prepared and
soaked for a period before the penetration test. The prepared test specimens
are positioned in a load frame and subjected to regulated penetration loads
from a piston with a surface area of 3in² (1,935mm²). Loads are recorded at
specified penetration intervals and plotted graphically.
Several variations in sample preparation test methods are possible in the CBR
test. Test methods can include a single sample tested at optimum water
content (as determined by ASTM D698 or D1557), a series of three test
specimens at optimum water content tested at different maximum dry unit
weights, or the testing of each sample used in the development of a compaction
curve. The two latter methods may also require compaction of several samples
with different blow counts to adjust the final density of the sample materials.
Selected test protocol should be clearly understood by all stakeholders, and
especially the testing lab before preparation begins.

Soaked CBR Test Specimens

Soaking accounts for adverse moisture conditions from potential rainfall or
flooding, and most CBR tests use this procedure. In addition to the compaction
process, preparation usually involves soaking each specimen in water for 96
hours before the penetration test.
During the soaking period, a surcharge load of 10lbf (4.54kg) or more must be
placed on the sample using surcharge weights to simulate the weight of the
pavement and other loads specified. The soil swell resulting from soaking must
be measured using expansion measuring apparatus and swell plates placed
on the sample before penetration testing. It takes a significant amount of time
to prepare multiple compacted specimens for a single test. Complete CBR
testing sets containing multiple CBR molds and components are available to
maximize testing productivity and efficiency.
Note: Unsoaked tests are not unusual in areas where rainfall amounts and the
local water table are both low.
water table are both low.

CBR Penetration Test

For penetration testing, the sample remains in the mold. With the perforated
plate and the specified surcharge weights in place on the soil, the piston is
seated against the test sample, and loading commences at a rate of 0.05in
(12.7mm) per minute. As the piston penetrates the soil, test loads are recorded
at eleven specified depths up to 0.500in (13mm).
Penetrations vs. load values are plotted on a graph and corrected following the
procedure specified in the test standard. Corrected stress values from
penetration depths of 0.100 and 0.200in (2.54 and 5.08mm) are divided by
standard stresses of 1,000psi (6.9mPa) and 1,500psi (10.3mPa), then
multiplied by 100. In most cases, CBR values decrease as penetration
increases. The CBR value is the stress at the 0.100in (2.54mm) penetration
depth. Occasionally, the ratio at the 0.200in (5.08mm) penetration depth is
higher than the 0.100in depth, and the test must be rerun. If the check test
shows similar results, the stress from the 0.200in penetration depth is the
reported CBR.
SOIL STABILIZATION
Soil stabilization is defined as a technique that maintains or improves the
stability of weak soils to achieve engineering goals.
The method of stabilizing soils is a commonly undertaken procedure in the
construction of airfields, parking lots, landfills, embankments, roads and
foundations, waterway management, agriculture and mining sites.
Stabilization is accomplished by increasing the shear strength and the overall
bearing capacity of a soil. Once stabilized, a solid monolith is formed that
decreases the permeability, which in turn reduces the shrink/swell potential
and harmful effects of freeze/thaw cycles.
Various methods of soil stabilization include:
 Mechanical Stabilization.
 Bituminous Stabilization.
 Lime Stabilization.
 Cement Stabilization.
 Chemical Stabilization.
 Miscellaneous Methods of Stabilization.

SOIL PERMEABILITY
The permeability of a soil is a measure of the ability of soil to allow water to
pass through it. It is typically represented by the letter ‘k’ and is measured as
the volume of water (m3) that can pass through an area (m2) per second (m3/
m2/s, or more simply m/s).
There are some forces required for the movement of water through the soil
medium:

 Hydrostatic pressure - It is the pressure exerted by the water at

equilibrium at any point of time due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic
pressure is proportional to the depth measured from the surface as the
weight of the water increases when a downward force is applied.
p= ρ g h
p is the pressure exerted by the liquid in N.m-2 or Pa

 ρ is the density of the liquid in kg.m-3, slugs

 g is the acceleration due to gravity taken as 9.81m.s-2
 h is the height of the fluid column in m
  Excess hydrostatic pressure - The term refers to sudden increase of
hydrostatic pressure, because of rapid load applied on the soil. When
the load is applied in sudden manner, driving water out of the pores in
the soil is difficult in the soil like clay. It is otherwise called as excess
pore water pressure.

 Hydraulic gradient - is the driving force that causes groundwater to move

in the direction of maximum decreasing total head. It is the change in
∆h
total head divided the distance over which the change occurs. i=
l

Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law states the principle which governs the movement of fluid in the
given substance. Darcy’s law equation describes the capability of the liquid to
flow via any porous media like a rock. The law is based on the fact according
to, the flow between two points is directly proportional to the pressure
differences between the points, the distance, and the connectivity of flow within
rocks between the points
V ∝i=V =ki

4.1 Darcy’s Law

In 1856, Henry Darcy reported results of experiments used to enhance the

water flow through sand filter beds used by the city of Dijon, France for water
treatment (Darcy, 1856). As an engineer, he wanted to design sand beds that
would efficiently and effectively filter the daily volume of water needed by the
city. To evaluate the volume of water that could be filtered in a given period of
time, Darcy experimented with changing: the type of sand; the area of the filter
bed (diameter of the tube in his experiments); the thickness of the sand (length
of the sample in his experiments); and, the force driving water through the
filter bed (Figure 15).
Darcy’s experiment.
(a) In the original apparatus using mercury manometers to measure water
pressures, water flowed at a constant rate into the top of the column and exited
at the bottom.
(b) Commonly Darcy columns are equipped with water filled tubes referred to
as piezometers to measure water pressures instead of mercury manometers
(after Darcy, 1856).

To determine the driving force, he used mercury manometers to measure

pressure in the reservoir on each end of the sand filter because he knew that
the combination of water pressure and elevation would describe the
mechanical energy at each location.
By conducting a number of experiments under varying conditions, Darcy
discovered a mathematical relationship that indicated the steady-state flow
rate through the circular sand filter, Q, was: directly proportional to the cross
sectional area of the filter, A; directly proportional to the difference in hydraulic
head (elevation of water in the piezometers measured from a datum) on each
side of the filter, Δh; and inversely proportional to the length of the filter
material, ΔL. The elevation of the water level in the piezometers is referred to
a hydraulic head.

∆h
Q ∝− A
∆L

Where Q = volumetric flow rate m3/s

∆ h = difference in hydraulic head between two measuring points

∆ L = length along flow path between locations where hydraulic heads are
measured

A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow

The negative sign is included because the volumetric flow rate Q is positive in
the direction of flow under a negative change in head. The head decreases in
the direction of flow.

By experimenting with coarse- to fine-grained sands, Darcy found that the

flow rate was also directly proportional to the character of the sand he placed
in the column. The proportionality constant is referred to as the hydraulic
conductivity or permeability and its use converts the proportionality to an
equivalency. This mathematical relationship is referred to as Darcy’s Law.
Darcy’s law is the fundamental equation used to describe the flow of fluid
through porous media, including groundwater.

∆h
Q=−K A
∆L

Where K is the hydraulic conductivity, which is the proportionality constant

reflecting the ease with which water flows through a material.

∆h
is the gradient of hydraulic head
∆L
Consequently, if the area of the column is increased by a factor of two while
the flow rate and length of saturated sediment are held constant, the
difference in water elevations (Δh) in the piezometers will decrease by a factor
of two. It also holds that if the cross-sectional area, flow rate and hydraulic
conductivity were constant and the column length (ΔL) is reduced by one half
the difference in head (Δh) will decrease by 2.

Given Darcy’s Law, if the flow rate (QIN = QOUT), sample length (ΔL), and sample
material are equal in both a) and b), and the flow area is increased from that
shown in (a) by a factor of two as shown in (b), the hydraulic head difference,
Δh = h2 – h1, between the measurement locations will decrease by a factor of
two because the larger area of flow offers less resistance to flow. Differences
between a) and b) are indicated in red.

Darcy’s Law in the most general form is presented as a differential

where dh and dL are defined over an infinitesimally small interval, so the
previous equation changes.
The Constant head Permeability Test
The constant head permeability test is a common laboratory testing method
used to determine the permeability of granular soils like sands and
gravels containing little or no silt. This testing method is made for testing
reconstituted or disturbed granular soil samples. It involves flow of water
through a column of cylindrical soil sample under the constant pressure
difference. The ratio of the cell diameter to the largest grain size diameter
should be higher than 12. The usual size of the cell used is 75mm diameter
and 260mm height between perforated plates. The apparatus also consists of
a constant head reservoir and an outlet reservoir which allows maintaining a
constant head during the test.
Before starting the flow measurements, the soil sample is saturated. During
the test, the amount of water flowing through the soil column is measured for
a given time intervals. Knowing the height of the soil sample L, cross section
area A and the constant pressure difference ∆ h, volume of passing water Q
and the time interval ∆ T , one can calculate the permeability of the sample as:
QL
K=
A∆ h∆T

The Falling head permeability Test

The falling head permeability test is used to determine the permeability of
fine grained soils with intermediate and low permeability such as silts
and clays with permeability in range of 1x10 -5 to 1x10-9. This testing
method can be applied to an undisturbed sample. It involves flow of water
through a relatively short sample connected to a stand pipe which provides
the water head and also allows measuring the volume of water passing
through the sample.
The permeability diameter of the stand pipe depends on the permeability of
the tested soil. Before starting the flow measurements, the soil sample is
saturated and the stand pipe are filled with de-aired water to a given level. The
test then starts by allowing water to flow through the sample until the water in
the stand pipe reaches a given lower limit. The time required for the water in
the stand pipe to drop from the upper to the lower limit is recorded.
On the basis of the test results, the permeability of the sample can be
2.3 a L hu
calculated as: K= log
A ∆T hl

Examples
A sample of sand, 5cm in diameter and 15cm long was prepared at a
porosity of 60% in a constant head apparatus. The total head was kept
constant head of 30cm and the amount of water collected in 5seconds was
40cm3. The test temperature was 200C. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of
the sample.
Solution
 Given D = 5cm, L = 15cm, H = 30cm, Q = 40cm3, t = 5 seconds
QL
Using the formula K=
A∆ h∆T
40 x 15 x 4 −1
K= 2
=0.20372=2.03 x 10 cm/s
π x 5 x 30 x 5

(2) The data from a falling head test on a silty clay layer are:
Cross-sectional area of soil = 80cm2
Length of soil sample = 10cm
Initial head limit = 90cm
Final head limit = 84cm
Duration of test = 15 minutes
Diameter of stand pipe = 6mm
Temperature = 220c
Using the formula:

2.3 a L hu
K= log
A ∆T hl

2.3 x π x 62 x 10 90 −4
log =2.0 x 10 cm/ s
4 x 80 x 15 x 60 84
Shear Strength of Soils
Shear strength of a soil is indicative of its resistance to erosion. Specifically, it
is defined as the resistance to deformation by the action of tangential (shear)
stress. Soil shear strength is made up of cohesion between particles and
resistance of particles sliding over each other due to friction or interlocking.

The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that
the soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it.
The capability of the following comes from the soil shear strength:
 Support its own overburden & loading from structure
 Support Sustain slope in equilibrium

Shear Strength Equation

τ =c +σ sin ɸ

Where τ =shear strength∈kN /m 2, c=cohesion∈ kN /m2 , σ =Normal stress∈kN /m2 and

ɸ=angle of internal friction of soil ∈degrees
This equation is called the Mohr-Coulomb equation

Laboratory measurement of shear strength of soil

1. Direct Shear test

Direct shear test is a simple and commonly used test performed in a shear box
to determine the shear parameters of soils. The direct shear test is also known
as shear box test.
The principle of the test is to cause shear failure of a soil specimen, placed in a
shear box along a predetermined horizontal plane, under a given normal stress,
and to determine the shear stress at failure. The test is repeated on identical
soil specimens under different normal stresses and the shear stress at failure
under each normal stress is determined. A graph is plotted between the normal
stress and the shear stress and the y-intercept and the slope of the failure
envelope so obtained are taken as the shear parameters c and ɸ, respectively.

2. Tri-axial Compression Test

Tri-axial compression test is used for the determination of shear parameters of
all types of soil under any drainage condition.
In this test, a cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to a confining pressure in
all directions in a tri-axial cell. An additional axial load, known as deviator
load, is then applied in vertical direction until the specimen fails. Here σ 3 is the
confining pressure, also called cell pressure, or all-round pressure and σd is the
deviator stress, also called additional axial stress or added axial stress.
The test is repeated on three or more identical soil specimens and the principal
stresses, so obtained, are used to draw the Mohr’s circles. The failure envelope
is drawn as a common tangent for the Mohr’s circles to determine the shear
parameters of the soil.
Mohr Circle for tri-axial test

3. Unconfined Compression Test

The unconfined compression (UCC) test is a special case of a tri-axial

compression test in which the confining (cell) pressure is zero. The test can be
conducted only on saturated cohesive soils, which can stand unsupported
without confining pressure. A cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to axial
vertical stress (major principal stress), as shown in Fig. 13.37, until the
specimen fails due to shearing along a critical plane of failure.
The merits of the UCC test are that the test is simple, convenient, and quick. It
is ideally suited for measuring undrained shear strength of saturated clays.
In its simplest form, the apparatus consists of a load frame fitted with a
proving ring to measure the vertical stress, σ1 applied to the soil specimen.
Figure 13.38 shows the test setup for the UCC test. The deformation of the soil
specimen during the application of vertical stress is measured by a separate
dial gauge. The load versus deformation readings during the test are taken and
the stress-strain curve is plotted.