Soil Compaction

In the construction of highway embankments, earth

dams, and many other engineering structures,
loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights.

Compaction increases the strength characteristics

of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of
foundations constructed over them.

Compaction also decreases the amount of

undesirable settlement of structures and increases
the stability of slopes of embankments.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES

COMPACTION: the densification of soil by removal

of air, which requires mechanical energy.

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in

terms of its dry unit weight.

When water is added to the soil during compaction,

it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles. The
soil particles slip over each other and move into a
densely packed position.
The dry unit weight after compaction first increases
as the moisture content increases.

When the moisture is gradually increased and the

same compacted effort is used for compaction, the
weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually
increases.

Beyond a certain moisture content, any increase in

the moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit
weight, this is because the water takes up the
spaces that would have been occupied by the solid
particles.
The moisture content at which the maximum dry
unit weight is attained is generally referred to as the
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).

The laboratory test generally used to obtain the

maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the
optimum moisture content is called the Proctor
compaction test.
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST (ASTM D 698)
The soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume
of 944cm3.

During the test, the mold is attached to a baseplate

at the bottom and to a extension at the top.

The soil is mixed with varying amount of water and

then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer
that delivers 25 blows to each layer.

The hammer has a mass of 2.5kg and has a drop of

30.5mm.
For each test, the moisture content of the
compacted soil is determined in the laboratory.

The values of γd can be plotted against the

corresponding moisture contents to obtain the
maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil.
For a given moisture content and degree of
saturation, the dry unit weight can be calculated as
follows:
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

Besides moisture content, other important factors

that affect compaction are soil type and
compaction effort (energy per unit volume).
Effect of Soil Type

The soil type – that is, grain-size distribution, shape

of the soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and
amount and type of clay minerals present – has a
great influence on the maximum dry unit weight
and optimum moisture content.
For sands, the dry unit weight has a general
tendency first to decrease as moisture content
increases and then to increase to a maximum value
with further increase of moisture.

The initial decrease of dry unit weight with increase

of moisture content can be attributed to the
capillary tension effect.
Lee and Suedkamp, observed that four types of
compaction curves can be found.
Effect of Compaction Effort
The compaction energy per unit volume used for
the standard Proctor test is:
If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is
changed, the moisture – unit weight curve also
changes. However, the degree of compaction is not
directly proportional to the compaction effort.

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the

maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the
optimum moisture content is decreased to
some extent.
MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST – ASTM D 1557
* The standard Proctor test was modified to better
represent field conditions.

* The same mold is used with a volume of 944cm3, as in

the case of the standard Proctor test.

* The soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that

has a mass of 4.54kg.

* The drop of the hammer is 457mm.

* The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at

25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.
The compaction energy for this type of compaction test
can be calculated as 2700kN-m/m3.

This increases the compactive effort, which results in an

increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The
increase in the maximum dry unit weight is accompanied
by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.
STRUCTURE OF COMPACTED CLAY SOIL

If clay is compacted with a moisture content on the dry

side of the optimum, it will possess a flocculent
structure.

This type of structure results because, at low moisture

content, the diffuse double layers of ions surrounding
the clay particles cannot be fully developed; hence the
interparticle repulsion is reduced.

This reduced repulsion results in a more random particle

orientation and a lower dry unit weight.
When the moisture content of compaction is increased,
the diffuse double layers around the particles expand,
which increases the repulsion between the clay particles
and gives a lower degree of flocculation and a higher dry
unit weight.

A continuous increase in moisture expands the double

layers more. This expansion results in a continued
increase of repulsion between the particles and this a
still greater degree of particle orientation and a more or
less dispersed structure. However, the dry unit weight
decreases because the added water dilutes the
concentration of soil solids per unit volume.
At a given moisture content, higher compactive effort
yields a more parallel orientation to the clay particles,
which fives a more dispersed structure.

The particles are closer and the soil has a higher unit
weight of compaction.
EFFECT OF COMPATION ON COHESIVE SOIL
PROPERTIES
Compaction induces variations in the structure of
cohesive soils, which include changes in hydraulic
conductivity, compressibility, and strength.

The hydraulic conductivity, whish is a measure of how

easily water flows through soil, decreases with the
increase of moisture content.

It reaches a minimum values at approximately the

optimum moisture content. Beyond the OMC, the
hydraulic conductivity increases slightly.
The high value of the hydraulic conductivity on the dry
side of the optimum moisture content is due to the
random orientation of clay particles that results in larger
pore spaces.
The strength of compacted clayey soils generally
decreases with the molding moisture content. The
unconfined compression strength, qu, is greatly reduced
for the specimen compacted on the wet side of the
optimum moisture content.
Some expansive clays in the field do not stay compacted,
but expand upon entry of water wand shrink with loss of
moisture.

This shrinkage and swelling of soil can cause serious

distress to the foundations of structures.
FIELD COMPACTION
Compaction Equipment

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers
Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof rolling
subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with sandy
and clayey soils.

Provides 100% coverage under the wheels, with ground

contact pressure as high as 310 to 380kN/m2.

They are suitable for producing high unit weights of

compaction when used on thicker layers.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are heavily loaded with
several rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced –
four to six in a row.

The contact pressure under the tires can range from 600
to 700kN/m2, and they produce about 70 to 80%
coverage.

Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey soil

compaction. Compaction is achieved by a combination
of pressure and kneading action.
Sheepsfoot rollers are drums with large numbers of
projections.

The area of each projection may range from 25 to

85cm2. these rollers are most effective in compacting
clayey soils.

The contact pressure under the projections can range

from 1400 to 7000kN/m2.

During compaction in the field, the initial passes

compact the lower portion of a lift. Compaction at the
top and the middle of a lift is done at a later stage.
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in compacting
granular soils.

Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic

rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil.

The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights.

Handheld vibrating plates can be used for effective
compaction of granular soils over a limited area.
Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted on machines.
These plates can be used in less restricted areas.
Factors Affecting Field Compaction
a. Soil Type
b. Moisture Content
c. Thickness of Lift
d. The intensity of pressure applied by the compacting
equipment
e. The area over which the pressure is applied

Pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth,

which results in a decrease in the degree of soil
compaction.
During compaction, the dry unit weight of soil is affected
by the number of roller passes.

The dry unit weight of a soil at a given moisture content

increases to a certain point with the number of roller
passes. Beyond this point, it remains approximately
constant.

In most cases, about 10 to 15 roller passes yield the

maximum dry unit weight economically attainable.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIELD COMPACTION

In most earthworks, the contractor is instructed to

achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95%
of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the
laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor
test.
For the compaction of granular soils, specification
sometimes are written in terms of the required relative
density.

Lee and Singh (1971)

DETERMINATION OF FIELD UNIT WEIGHT
OF COMPACTION

STANDARD PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE FIELD

UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION:

1. SAND CONE METHOD

2. RUBBER BALLOON METHOD
3. NUCLEAR METHOD
SAND CONE METHOD (ASTM D 1556)

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar

with metal cone attached at its tip.

The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.

In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where

the soil has been compacted.

If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole is

determined and the moisture content of the excavated
soil is known, the dry unit weight can be obtained.
W1: Combined weight of the jar, the cone and the sand
filling the jar.
W2: Weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole.
W3: Dry weight of the soil
w: Water content
After excavation of the hole, the cone with sand-filled jar
attached to it is inverted and placed over the hole.

Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and
the cone.

After that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone, and
the remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4).
RUBBER BALLOON METHOD (ASTM D 2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar

to that for the sand cone method.

The test hole is made and the moist weight of the soil is
removed from the hole and its moisture content are
determined.

The volume of the hole is determined by introducing

into it a rubber balloon filled with water from the
calibrated vessel, from which the volume can be read
directly.
The dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be
determined by using the following equation:
NUCLEAR METHOD

The density meters operate either in drilled holes or

from the ground surface.

It uses radioactive isotope source. The isotope gives off

Gamma rays that radiate back to the meter’s detector.

Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil. The

instrument measures the weight of the wet soil per unit
volume and the weight of the water present in a unit
volume of soil.
The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be
determined by subtracting the weight of water from the
moist unit weight of soil.
COMPACTION OF ORGANIC SOIL AND
WASTER MATERIALS

The presence of organic materials in a soil reduces its

strength.

High costs of waste disposal have sparked an interest in

the possible use od waste material.

Such use of waste materials is one of the major thrusts

of present-day environmental geology.
ORGANIC SOIL

Franklin, Orozco, and Semrau (1973) conducted several

laboratory tests to observe the effect or organic content
on the compaction characteristics of soil.

When organic content exceeds 8 to 10%, the maximum

dry unit weight of compaction decreases rapidly.

The optimum moisture content for a given compactive

effort increases with an increase in organic content.
The maximum unconfined compression strength
obtained from compacted soil (with a given compactive
effort decreases with increasing organic content of a soil.

“Soils with organic content higher than about 10% are

undesirable for compaction work.”
SOIL AND ORGANIC MATERIAL MIXTURES

Lancaster, et al (1996) conducted modified Proctor test

to determine the effect of organic content on the
maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture
content of soil and organic material mixtures.

The soils tested consisted of a poorly graded sandy soil

(SP-SM) mixed with either shredded redwood bark,
shredded rice hulls, or municipal sewage sludge.

The maximum dry unit weight decreased with organic

content in all cases.
The optimum moisture content increased with organic
content for soil mixed with shredded red-wood or rice
hulls.

For soil and municipal sewage sludge mixtures, the

optimum moisture content remained practically
constant.
BOTTOM ASH FROM COAL BURNING AND
COPPER SLAG
These waste products have been shown to be
environmentally safe for use as landfill.
SPECIAL COMPACTION TECHNIQUES
VIBROFLOTATION
Vibroflotation was developed in Germany in the 1930s,
is a technique for in situ densification of thick layers of
loose granular deposits.

The process involves the use of a Vibroflot unit (also

called the vibrating unit), which is about 2.1m long.

This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and

can develop a centrifugal force, which enables the
vibrating unit to vibrate horizontally.
There are openings at the bottom and top of the
vibrating unit for water jets.

The vibrating unit is attached to a follow-up pipe.

Square and rectangular patterns generally are used to
compact soil for isolated, shallow foundations.

Equilateral triangular patters generally are used to

compact large areas.

The capacity for successful densification of in situ soil

depends on several factors, the most important of which
is the grain-size distribution of the soil and the type of
backfill used to fill the holes during the withdrawal
period of the Vibroflot.
The range of the grain-size distribution of in situ soil
marked Zone 1 is most suitable for compaction by
vibroflotation.

Soils that contain excessive amount of fine sand and silt-

size particles are difficult to compact, and considerable
effort is needed to reach the proper relative density of
compaction.

Zone 2 is approximate lower limit of grain-size

distribution for which compaction by vibroflotation is
effective.
Soil deposits whose grain-size distributions fall in Zone 3
contain appreciable amounts of gravel.

For these soils, the rate of probe penetration may be

slow and may prove uneconomical in the long run.

The grain size distribution of the backfill material is an

important factor that controls the rate of densification.

Brown (1977) has defined a quantity called suitability

number for rating backfill.
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Dynamic compaction is a technique that has gained
popularity in the United States for the densification of
granular soil deposits.

This process consists primarily of dropping a heavy

weight repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals.

The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of

80 to 360kN, and the height of the hammer drop varies
between 7.5 and 30.5m.

The stress waves generated by the hammer drops aid in

the densification.
The degree of compaction achieved at a given site
depends on the following factors:

1. Weights of hammer.
2. Height of hammer drop.
3. Spacing locations at which the hammer is dropped.

Leonard, Cutter, and Holtz (1980) suggested that the

significant depth of influence for compaction can be
approximated by:
In 1992, Poran and Rodriguez suggested a rational
method for conducting dynamic compaction for granular
soils in the field.

For a hammer of width D having a weight WH and a drop

h, the approximate shape of the densified area will be of
the type as semiprolate spheroid.
b = DI (DI is the significant depth of densification)

D = width of the hammer if not circular in cross section

A = area of the cross section of the hammer

N = number of required hammer drops.

BLASTING
Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in
many projects for densification of granular soils.

The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by

blasting are the same as those for compaction by
vibroflotation.

The process involves the detonation of explosive

charges, such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth below
the ground surface in saturated soil.
The lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 3 to
9m.

Three to five successful detonations are usually

necessary to achieve the desired compaction.

Compaction (up to a relative density of about 80%) up to

a depth of about 18m over a large area can easily be
achieved by using this process.

Usually, the explosives charges are placed at a depth of

about two-thirds of the thickness of the soil layer
desired to be compacted.
The sphere of influence of compaction by a 60%
dynamite charge can be given as:
EXAMPLE 1:
The results of a standard Proctor test are given below.
Determine the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content.
EXAMPLE 2:
Laboratory compaction test results for a clayey silt
are given in the following table.
The following are the results of a field unit-weight
determination test performed on the same soil by means
of the sane cone method:

Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570kg/m3

Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78kg
Mass of Moist soil from the hole = 3.007kg
Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2%

a. Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the

field.
b. The relative compaction in the field.