GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

COMPACTION OF SOIL
LECTURE-4
 WHAT IS SOIL COMPACTION?
✓ It is the process in which a stress applied to
a soil causes densification as air is
displaced from the pores between the soil
grains . Soil particles are pressed together
making air voids minimum as possible.
WHY WE NEED TO COMPACT SOIL?
❑ To increase load-bearing capacity
❑ To prevent soil settlement and frost damage
❑ To provide stability
❑ To reduce water seepage, swelling and contraction
❑ To reduce settling of soil
❑ Applied in the construction of many engineering structures
such as highway embankments and earth dams
❑ To increase the soil density
❑ To improve strength characteristics
❑ To minimize compressibility
 METHODS OF COMPACTING SOIL
Applying energy to soil by one or more of these methods
will cause compaction:
✓ Impact – sharp blow
✓ Pressure – static weight
✓ Vibration – shaking
✓ Kneading – manipulation or rearranging
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT COMPACTION
METHODS IS DEPENDENT ON THE SOIL TYPE.
COMMON TYPES OF FIELD
COMPACTING EQUIPMENT
 SMOOTH – WHEEL ROLLERS (SMOOTH – DRUM ROLLERS )

❑ These are the most

advantageous because it can
compact both silt and clayey
soils.
❑ These are suitable for proof
rolling sub grades and for
finishing.
❑ Provide 100%coverage under
the wheels, with ground
contact pressures as high as
310 to 380 kN/m2
 PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLERS
❑ Compaction is achieved by
combination of pressure and
kneading action
❑ Load is supplied by weights
(heavily loaded with several
rows of tires). Mass per
wheel range from 1000 kg to
12000 kg
❑ Small rollers not suited for
high – production, thick lift
embankment
❑ Large rollers are capable of
compacting all types of soil
to greater depths
❑ Can be used for sandy and
clayey soil compaction
 SHEEPS FOOT ROLLERS
❑ These provide a kneading
action, which is the most
effective in compacting clayey
soils.

❑ Similar to the smooth drum

roller, however, many
rounded or rectangular
protrusions (or feet) are
attached to the drum.
 VIBRATORY ROLLERS
❑ Vibratory rollers are
extremely efficient in
compacting granular
soils.
❑ These cause re-
orientation of the soil
particles into a denser
configuration.
❑ The vibration is
produced by rotating off-
center weights.
 IMPACT ROLLERS
❑ These are the latest compaction
equipment, which use shaped
(e.g., triangular ellipsoids or
hexagonal), as opposed to round
drums.

❑ High energy imparted by these

systems allows them to achieve
compaction at a faster rate and
to greater depths.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOIL COMPACTION
❑ The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its
dry unit weight.
❑ During compaction water is
gradually added to the soil to act
as a softening agent.
❑ The soil particles slip over each
other and move into a densely
packed position, thus effecting
gradual increase in dry density.
❑ As more and more water is added,
a stage is reached when the air
content of the soil attains a
minimum volume, thus making
the dry density a maximum.
❑ The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is
referred to as the optimum moisture content.
❑ Addition of water beyond the optimum tends to reduce the dry unit weight.
This is because the water takes up the spaces that would have been
occupied by solid particles.
LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS
The various procedures used in the laboratory compaction tests
involve application of impact loads, kneading, static loads, or
vibration.
Some of the more important procedures are:
Standard Proctor (AASHTO) Test, Modified Proctor (Modified
AASHTO) Test, I.S. Compaction Test, Harvard Miniature
Compaction Test, Dietert Test, Abbot’s Compaction Test and
Jodhpur Minicompacter Test.
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
This is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the
optimal moisture content at which a given soil type will become
most dense and achieve its maximum dry density. It was developed
in order to duplicate and control the quality of field compaction.
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST PROCEDURE
❑ The test is conducted by compacting three (3) layers
of soil in a mold 944 cm3 in volume (1/30 ft3).

❑ Each layer of soil is compacted by giving 25 blows by

a hammer weighing 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) with a 304.8 mm
(12 in) drop.

❑ Knowing the volume of the mold, the weight of

compacted wet soil in the mold and the moisture
content, the dry density of compaction can be
determined.

❑ Dry unit weight and the moisture content relation is

obtained by repeating the test at various moisture
contents.

❑ The Standard Proctor Test described above has been

adopted by ASTM and AASHTO as standard
laboratory test procedures.
 MOISTURE CONTENT—DRY DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
Dry unit Weight can be calculated as

where ω(%) = moisture content of the compacted soil determined in the

laboratory

Moist unit weight computation

where W = weight of the compacted

soil in the mold
Moisture content versus dry density at Vm = volume of the mold
a particular compactive effort
 SATURATION (ZER0-AIR-VOIDS) LINE
The max dry unit weight at a given moisture content with zero air
voids can be obtained by substituting S = 1 into the equation,

To obtain the variation of the zero-air-void unit weight with

moisture content and the corresponding theoretical saturation line
, use the ff procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity
of soil solids.
2. Know the unit weight of water
3. Assume several values of w,
such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on.
4. Use the eq to calculate γzav for
various values of w.
#1. PROBLEM
Given standard soil compaction test results as follows:
Trial Number Moisture Wet unit weight
Content % by of compacted Dry unit weight
dry weight soil (kN/m3) kN/m3
1 8.30 19.8 18.28
2 10.50 21.3 19.28
3 11.30 21.6 19.41
4 13.40 21.2 18.70
5 13.80 20.8 18.28
The specific gravity of soil particles is 2.65. Plot the ff:
a. Moisture-dry density curve
b. Zero air voids curve
c. 10% air content curve
Determine the optimum moisture content and the corresponding
maximum dry density of the solid
 Water Dry Unit Weight
content % Zero air-voids 10% air condition
condition
8 21.45 21.04
10 20.55 20.10
12 19.73 19.20
14 18.96 18.40
16 18.26 17.66
MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
This test was developed to deliver greater compactive effort with a
view to simulating the heavier compaction required for the
construction of airport pavements.
The mold used is the same as that for Standard
Proctor Test. The weight of the rammer is 4.54
kg (10lb) and the height of fall is 457 mm (18in).
The mold is filled in five layers, each layer being
compacted with 25 blows. The compaction
energy is calculated as 2700 kN-m/m3 (56,000
ft-lb/lb3).
 COMPARISON OF TESTS
Standard Proctor Test
(ASTM D698 / AASHTO T99)
❑ uses a 4-inch-diameter (100
mm) mould
❑ holds 1/30th cubic foot of soil
❑ calls for compaction of three
separate lifts of soil using 25
blows by a 5.5 lb hammer
falling 12 inches, for a
compactive effort of 12,400
ft-lbf/ft³
Modified Proctor Test
(ASTM D1557 / AASHTO T180)
❑ uses the same mould
❑ uses a 10 lb. hammer falling
through 18 inches, with 25
blows on each of five lifts,
for a compactive effort of
about 56,000 ft-lbf/ft³
Compaction characteristics of a soil
generally depend on:
1. Soil type
2. Compaction effort
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
A. SOIL TYPE
- Has a great influence on
the max dry unit weight
and optimum moisture
content. (Grain size
distribution, shape of the
soil grains, specific
gravity of soil solids, and
amount of type of clay
minerals present)
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPACTION CURVES ENCOUNTERED IN SOILS
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
B. EFFECT OF COMPACTION EFFORT
Increase in compactive
effort or the energy
expended will result in an
increase in the maximum
dry density and a
corresponding decrease in
the optimum moisture
content.
Compaction energy per unit volume used for
the standard Proctor test
#2. PROBLEM
A proposed earth fill needs 30,000 cu m of soil and be compacted
to 95% of Standard Proctor dry density. Tests indicate that the max
dry density is 19.4 kN/m3 at an optimum water content of 16%. The
borrow material in its natural condition has a unit weight of 17.6
kN/m3 and the water content of 12 %
1. Determine the total vol. of borrow required
2. Find the quantity of water to be added to bring the soil to the
optimum moisture content.
FIELD COMPACTION
Other factors considered in achieving desired
density of compaction in the field:
❑ Thickness of lift

❑ Intensity of pressure applied by the compacting

equipment

❑ The area over which the pressure is applied

▪ Pressure applied at the surface by compacting

equipment decreases with depth and will decrease
degree of compaction
❑ Number of passes of the roller: the dry unit weight of
a soil at a given moisture will increase with the
number of passes up to a certain point. Beyond
which, it will remain constant.

✓ About 10 passes of the roller will yield the maximum

dry unit weight

*Quality control: compacted dry unit weights should be

checked occasionally
SPECIFICATIONS for FIELD COMPACTION
Relative Compaction (R) – the specification for earthwork where
the compacted dry unit weight must be 90 to 95% of the maximum
dry unit weight determined in the laboratory.

Specification for Relative Compaction based on Relative Density

used for compaction of granular soils
where:
Suitability Number
- quantity that is used as a backfill rating
FIELD DENSITY TEST
A. SAND CONE TEST
B. BALLOON TEST
C. NUCLEAR DENSITY METERS.
SAND CONE TEST
❑ A hole of 3 in to 5 in in diameter is made on
the surface of the compacted layer of soil.

❑ All the soil from the hole is carefully

removed and weighed. Its moisture content
is determined.

❑ The hole is then filled with a clean, dry,

free-flowing sand from a sand cone device.

❑ Knowing the weight of dry sand required to

fill the hole and its dry unit weight in loose
state (determined in the laboratory), the
volume of the hole can be determined.
#PROBLEM
Laboratory compaction test results for a clayey silt are given in the
following table.
Water Content % 6 8 9 11 12 14
Dry Unit Weight kN/m3 14.80 17.45 18.52 18.9 18.5 16.9
Following are the results of a field unit weight determination test
using the sand cone method.
• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 kg/m3
• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.007 kg
• Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2 %
Determine:
1. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field
2. Relative compaction in the field
#PROBLEM
Laboratory compaction test results for a clayey silt are given in the
following table.
Water Content % 6 8 9 11 12 14
Dry Unit Weight kN/m3 14.80 17.45 18.52 18.9 18.5 16.9
Following are the results of a field unit weight determination test
using the sand cone method.
• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 kg/m3
• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.007 kg
• Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2 %
Determine:
1. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field
2. Relative compaction in the field
RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

❑ similar to the sand-cone method in

making the test hole, and
determining the wet weight of soil
removed from the hole and its
moisture content

❑ The volume of the hole is

determined by introducing into it a
rubber balloon filled with water
from a calibrated vessel, from
which the volume can be read
directly.
NUCLEAR MOISTURE AND DENSITY METERS
❑ used in several large projects for
direct determination of compacted
unit weights

❑ much faster than the conventional

sand-cone and rubber-balloon
methods

❑ high cost of equipment

#PROBLEM
The following are the details for the backfill material in a
vibroflotation project.
D10 = 0.36 mm
D20 = 0.52 mm
D25 = 0.60 mm
D50 = 1.42 mm
D75 = 1.65 mm
1. Find the suitability number
2. Determine the rating
3. Compute the sorting coefficient RATING Sn
Excellent 0 – 10
Good 11 – 20
Fair 21 – 30
Poor 31 – 50
Unsuitable 50+
SPECIAL COMPACTION TECHNIQUES
(for large scale compaction works)
A. Vibroflotation
B. Dynamic compaction
C. Blasting
Vibroflotation
❑ Vibroflotation is a technique for in
situ densification of thick layers of
loose granular soil deposits.
❑ The process involves the use of a
Vibroflot unit (also called the
vibrating unit), which is about 2.1 m
(7 ft) long.
❑ There are openings at the bottom
and top of the vibrating unit for
water jets.
Vibroflotation Process

Stage 1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the
ground.
Stage 2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil and it allows the vibrating
unit to sink into the ground.
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the
lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This
water carries the granular material down the hole.
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3 m (1 ft) lifts and held
vibrating for about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil
to the desired unit weight.
COMPACTION QUALITY CONTROL
THREE POPULAR FIELD COMPACTION TEST
A. SAND CONE TEST
B. BALLOON TEST
C. NUCLEAR DENSITY METERS.
SAND CONE TEST
The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal
cone attached at its top. The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa
sand. The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling
the jar is determined. In the field, a small hole is excavated in the
area where the soil has been compacted.
Rubber Balloon Method
The procedure for the rubber balloon method is
similar to that for the sand cone method; a test
hole is made and the moist weight of soil
removed from the hole and its moisture content
are determined. However, the volume of the hole
is determined by introducing into it a rubber
balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel,
from which the volume can be read directly.
Figure shows a calibrated vessel that would be
used with a rubber balloon.
Nuclear Method
Nuclear density meters are often used
for determining the compacted dry unit
weight of soil. The density meters
operate either in drilled holes or from
the ground surface. It uses a radioactive
isotope source. The isotope gives off
Gamma rays that radiate back to the
meter’s detector. Dense soil absorbs
more radiation than loose soil. The
instrument measures the weight of wet
soil per unit volume and the weight of
water present in a unit volume of soil.
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
Proctor Compaction test (Proctor, 1933)
- Lab test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight
of compaction and the optimum moisture content.
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
The mold used has a volume of 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3). The weight of
the rammer is 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and the height of fall is 305 mm
(12in). The mold is filled in three layers, each layer being
compacted with 25 blows. The compaction energy is calculated as
600 kN-m/m3 (12,400 ft-lb/lb3).
 SOIL COMPACTION
Compaction of soil – is the densification of soil by removal of air
which requires mechanical energy.
Compaction Advantages:
- Increases the strength characteristics, which increases the
bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them
- Decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures
- Increases the stability of slopes of embankments
General Principles of Soil Compaction
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry
unit weight. During compaction water is gradually added to the soil
to act as a softening agent. The soil particles slip over each other
and move into a densely packed position. The moisture content at
which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is referred to as the
optimum moisture content. Any increase in the optimum moisture
content tends to reduce the dry unit weight. This is because the
water takes up the spaces that would have been occupied by solid
particles.
PROBLEM for Practice
The results of a standard Proctor test are given below
Volume of Proctor Weight og wet soil Moisture content (%)
mold (ft3) in the mold (lb)
1/30 3.26 8.4
1/30 4.15 10.2
1/30 4.67 12.3
1/30 4.02 14.6
1/30 3.63 16.8
1. Determine the optimum moisture content
a. 13.05% c. 12.37%
b. 14.71% d. 15.01%
2. Compute the void ratio if G = 2.72
a. 0.891 c. 0.519
b. 0.453 d. 0.358
3. Compute the degree of saturation at optimum moisture content
a. 74% c. 56%
b. 94% d. 40%
A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 m3 of compacted soil.
The void ratio of the compacted fill is specified as 0.7. Four borrow
pits are available as described in the following table, which lists
the respective void ratios of the soil and the cost per cubic meter
for moving the soil to the proposed construction site. Assume Gs to
be the same at all pits.
Borrow Pit Void Ratio Cost (Php/m3)
A 0.82 80
B 1.1 50
C 0.90 90
D 0.78 120
4. Which soil should be bought to minimize the cost?
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
The laboratory compaction test of a certain type of soil gives a
maximum dry density of 1.486 Mg/ m3 with an optimum moisture
content of 12.5%. The following are the results of a field unit
weight determination test using sand cone method. (CE BD MAY
2007)
Volume of soil excavated from the hole = 0.001337 m3
Weight of soil from the hole when wet = 2220 g
weight of soil when dry = 1890 g.
5. Determine the field unit weight of soil
a. 1.66 gr/cc c. 1.60
b. 1.98 d. 1.72
6. What is the in situ water content of soil
a. 17.46% c. 19.68%
b. 20.48% d. 25.65%
7. Determine the relative compaction, is it within the allowable
range for relative compaction of 95 ± 0.20?
a. 95.10%,yes c. 95.01%, yes
Sand cone equipment is used to perform a field density test on a
compacted earth fill.
Soil sample dug from test hole = 20.60 N
Dry weight of soil sample = 17.92 N
Ottawa sand used to fill the hole weighs 16.05 N and is known to
have a density of 15.74 KN/m3
8. Find the water content of the tested soil
a. 22.41% c. 14.96%
b. 19.46% d. 17.57%
9. Determine the in-place dry density of the soil
a. 15.53 KN/cum c. 19.45
b. 12.64 d. 17.57
10. Compute the percentage of compaction if the dry unit weight
at optimum water content is 18.10 KN/m3
a. 98.64% c. 85.45%
b. 97.07% d. 89.20%