Flexible pavement design

Flexible pavements are so named because the total

pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under loading.

Design procedures
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly
concerned with determining appropriate layer
thickness and composition.
The main design factors are stresses due to traffic
load and temperature variations.
Two methods of flexible pavement structural design
are : Empirical design and mechanistic empirical
design.
Empirical design
An empirical approach is one which is based on the
results of experimentation or experience.
CBR method is widely known and will be discussed.

Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Empirical-Mechanistic method of design is based on
the mechanics of materials that relates input, such as
wheel load, to an output or pavement response. In
pavement design, the responses are the stresses,
strains, and deflections within a pavement structure.
Traffic and Loading
Equivalent single wheel load
To carry maximum load with in the specified limit and
to carry greater load, dual wheel, or dual tandem
assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load
(ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same
contact pressure, which produces same value of
maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact
pressure at the desired depth.
Boyd and Foster method
 z 
0.301 log10  
log10 ESWL  log10 P  d /2
where P is the
 2S 
log10   wheel load, S is
 d / 2 
the center to
center distance
between the two
wheels, d is the
clear distance
between two
wheels, and z is
the desired depth.
Example 1
Find ESWL at depths of 5cm, 20cm and 40cm for a
dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each. The center to
center tyre spacing is 20cm and distance between
the walls of the two tyres is 10cm.
Repetition of Loads
It is required to carry out traffic surveys for accounting
the factor of repetition for wheel loads in the design of
pavement. Such collected data are converted to some
constant equivalent wheel loads. Equivalent wheel load
accounting for repetition of load are those which require
same thickness and strength of pavements.
If the pavement structure fails with N1 number of
repetition of load W1 and for the same failure criteria if it
requires N2 number of repetition of load W2, then W1N1
and W2N2 are considered equivalent.
An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the
damage per pass to a pavement by the ith type of axle
relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load.
McLeod has given a procedure for evolving equivalent
load factors for designing flexible pavements.
McLeod assumes that the pavement thickness which are
deigned for a given wheel load would support 1000000
repetition of such load during the life of pavement. For
one load application, the pavement thickness so required
is only one fourth the pavement thickness designed for
106 load repetitions.
 Wheel Repetition to Equivalent Equivalent
Load kg failure, to 2268 kg Load factors
Number
2268 105000 1.0 1
2722 50000 2.1 2
3175 22500 4.7 4
3629 13000 8.2 8
4082 6500 16.3 16
4536 3300 32.0 32
4993 1700 61.76 62
5443 1000 105.0 105

Equivalent load factors are employed to convert daily

traffic count for each category of wheel load for design
purposes.
Example:
Calculate design repetitions for 20 year period for various
wheel loads equivalent to 2268 kg wheel loads using the
following traffic survey data on a four lane road.
Wheel Average Daily Traffic Percent of Equivalent
Load (both directions) total traffic Load
kg volume factors
2268 Total volume 13.17 1
2722 (considering traffic 15.30 2
growth)
3175 215 11.76 4
3629 14.11 8
4082 6.21 16
4536 5.84 32
 Wheel A. D. T. Percent Days Number Equivale Design
Load kg (both for each /year of years nt Load repetitions
directio load factors equivalent of
ns) 2268 kg load
1 2 3 4 5 6 7=(2×3×4×5×6)
2268 215 13.17/100 365 20 1

2722 215 15.30/100 365 20 2

3175 215 11.76/100 365 20 4

3629 215 14.11/100 365 20 8

4082 215 6.21/100 365 20 16

4536 215 5.84/100 365 20 32

Total estimated repetitions (two directions) =

Design repetitions equivalent of 2268 kg wheel load per lane = /4
Design of Flexible Pavement by California Bearing
Ratio Method:
Design curves correlating CBR value with total
pavement thickness cover were developed by
California State Highway Department for wheel loads of
3175 kg and 5443 kg representing light and heavy
traffic. Later the design curve for 4082 k wheel load
was obtained by interpolation for medium traffic.
 CBR Testing Machine
Definition:
It is the ratio of force per unit area
required to penetrate a soil mass with
standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25
mm/min. to that required for the
corresponding penetration of a standard
material.
 Equipments For CBR Test
Cylindrical mould :
Inside dia 150 mm , height 175 mm,
detachable extension collar 50 mm height
detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick. 
Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle. 

Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a
drop 450 mm. 
Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5
kg each, 147 mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in diameter. 

Loading machine.
capacity of atleast 5000 kg , movable head or base that travels at an uniform
rate of 1.25 mm/min.

 Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length. 

Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm. 

Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm Sieves.

 Load vs Penetration
The standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard
material with a C.B.R. value of 100%

Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)

2.5 1370

5.0 2055

7.5 2630

10.0 3180

12.5 3600
Permissible Variation in CBR Value
CBR (%) Maximum Variation in
CBR Value
5 +_ 1
5-10 +_ 2

11-30 +_ 3

31 and above +_ 4
Following figure shows different curves based on traffic
volume. This design chart is similar to the one followed in U.K.
It is possible to extend the CBR design curves for various
loading conditions, using the following expression
developed by U.S. Corps of Engineers:
1/ 2 1/ 2
 1.75 1  1.75 P A 
t  P   t  
 CBR p   CBR  

However these expressions are applicable only when the

CBR value of the sub-grade soil is less than 12 percent.
Here,
t = pavement thickness, cm
P = wheel load, kg
CBR = California Bearing Ratio, percent
p = tyre pressure, kg/cm2
A = area of contact, cm2
Determination of pavement thickness.
Example:
The CBR value of sub-grade soil is 5% calculate total
thickness of pavement using:
(i) Design curve developed by California State Highway
Department.
(ii) Design chart similar to the one followed in U.K.
(iii) Design formula developed by U.S. Corps of
Engineers.
Assume 4100 kg wheel load or medium traffic or 200
commercial vehicles per day. Tyre pressure 6 kg/cm2.
Solution:
(i) 38cm

(ii) 37.5 cm

(iii) 1/ 2
 1.75 1 
t  P  
 CBR p 
1/ 2
1.75 1 
t  4100  
 5 6 

t = 35.5 cm
Example:
Design the pavement section using CBR charts similar
to the one used in U.K.CBR values and traffic details
are as under:
(i) Soil sub grade with 4% CBR,
(ii) Compacted soil with 7% CBR,
(iii) Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR,
(iv) Well graded gravel with 95% CBR,
(v) Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surfacing
may be taken as 5 cm.
(vi) Number of vehicles for design3260 veh/day.
Solution:

8 cm bituminous 21 cm 55 cm
surfacing
40 cm
13 cm well graded gravel
CBR = 95%

19 cm poorly graded gravel

CBR = 20%

15 cm compacted Soil
CBR = 7%
Soil Sub-grade CBR =
4%
Example: Find out the total thickness of a flexible
pavement to carry an average traffic of about
250vehicles exceeding 3 tonne loaded weight. The CBR
value of the sub-grade is 4%. Assume the wheel load as
4100kg and tyre pressure as 6kg/cm2. Compare results
as obtained by California State Highway charts and by
U.S. Corps of Engineer formula.