CHAPTER THREE

EFFECTIVE STRESS AND PORE WATER PRESSURE

INTRODUCTION

The effective stress principle is extremely useful basis of the most important theories in soil
engineering

The effective stress principle consists of two parts:

1. Definition of effective stress

2. Importance of the effective stress in engineering

• 
1. Definition of effective stress
o Effective Stress (): is the stress at a point in a soil mass which is equal to the total
stress at a point minus the pore pressure at the same point.
 Causes compression and frictional resistance (shear strength) in a soils.
 Called as intergranular stress.
o Total stress(σ): is the total weight of every thing above that point or total force
per unit area.
o Pore pressure(U): is known as a neutral pressure or neutral stress because, it does
not resist any shear stress that is developed in the soils and available in the pores.
   =σ–U= (- )h

2. Importance of Effective Stress

 controls the engineering properties of soils

 compression and shear strength of a soil are dependent on the effective
stress
Effect of Water Table Fluctuation on Effective Stress
1. If the ground water table rises to the ground surface, the whole of the soil
is saturated and the effective stress is reduced.
2. If the GWT is depresses below the required section pore water pressure is
zero and effective stress is increased.

Generally, fluctuation in water table level causes changes in the pore water pressure

and the corresponding changes in the effective stress.

1. If the water table rises above section X-X

Total stress,

Pore water pressure,

Effective stress,
2. If the water table is depressed below
section X-X : Total stress = γ H , U = 0
Effective Stress = γ H
 Effective Stress in a Soil Mass under Hydrostatic Conditions
shows a soil mass under hydrostatic conditions, where in the water
level remains constant
• 
Effective Stress in a Soils Saturated by Capillary action

If the stress above the water table is saturated by capillary action, the effective

stress can be determined using the equation = σ – U. However, in this case the pore

water pressure above the ground water table is negative.

The water table is at level B-B. Let we consider two cases.

a. Soil saturated up to surface level A-A (fig. a)

b. Soil saturated up to level D-D (fig. b)

• 

Effect of capillary rise

1. Soil saturated up to surface level A-A (fig. a)

Section A-A σ = 0 U=-

= 0 – (- ) = , i.e. capillary action increases effective stress by

( negative pressure acts like surcharge)
Also, if the soil was not saturated with capillary action, the effective stress at section A-A is zero.
•   
Section
SectionD -D: σ =σ()1
D -D: = ()1notenote
( + (=+ )= )

UU==-- == -- ((--))
()1 –– (-(-((--))))== ++
==()1
Section
  B-B: σ = ()1 U=0
Section B-B: σ = ()1 U=0
= ()1 = +
= ()1 = +
Section
  C-C : σ = ()1 + σ = ()2 U=
Section C-C : σ = ()1 + σ = ()2 U=
= ()1 + = + +γ
= ()1 + = + +γ
• 
2. Saturated up to level D-D (fig.b)
Section A-A σ=U
=0
There no effect of capillary water.

Section D-D σ= U=-

The effective stress due to capillary pressure is increased by

= γ +
• 
Section B-B: σ= γ + u=0

= γ + γ’ +
Generally,
 capillary rise can increases the effective stress of the soil and is
equivalent to surcharge
 effective stress depends up on submerged unit weight and saturated
unit weight for the soil saturated due to rise in WT and capillary
action respectively
 Effective Stress due to Surcharge

Surcharge:- is a load of intensity of per unit area

- it increases the effective stress by q thought
Reading Assignment on Effective Stress and Seepage

?
 CHAPTER 4
SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE
Water can cause instability and many geotechnical structures such as:-
 roads, bridges, dams and excavations have failed due to instability induced by
flow of water.
It is therefore necessary to estimate the quantity of underground seepage under
various:
 hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water
for underground construction, and
 for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are
The key physical property that governs flow of water in soils is permeability.
Prior to discussing permeability in detail, we should first note the following key
terms:

Ground water: is water under the influence of gravity that fills the soil particles.

Head: is the mechanical energy per unit weight.

Hydraulic conductivity (otherwise referred to as the coefficient of permeability):

is a proportionality constant to determine the flow velocity of water through soils.

GROUNDWATER

If we dig a hole in to a soil mass that has all the voids filled with water, we will
observe water filling the hole up to a certain level.
This water level is called ground water level or ground water table and exists
under a hydrostatic condition. A hydrostatic condition occurs when there is no
flow; i.e. the flow is zero.
The top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric pressure.
We will denote the ground water level by the symbol▼
HEAD

According to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at a point in water under motion
can be given by the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or
Open stand pipes known as piezometers are installed at the two points.

The levels to which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at the two points are known
as the piezometric level of their respective point.

The pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical column of water in the piezometer

installed at that point.

As water flows thorough a soil media as depicted in the figure, there will be a
head loss between the two points. This head loss can be given by:

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is proportional to
the gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is
 Where, v- is the average flow velocity,
K - is a coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic conductivity
(sometimes called the coefficient of permeability), and
dH - is the change in total head over a distance dx.

The unit of k is length/time, and it is usually expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI

units. With reference to the previous figure, Darcy’s law becomes:

Where i = ∆h/L is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow

is laminar, i.e. where Reynold’s number is less than 2000.

Turbulent flow may exist in very coarse sands and gravels, and Darcy’s law may not
be valid for these materials. However, under a low hydraulic gradient, laminar flow
conditions usually exist.
The average velocity calculated from the previous equation is for the cross-sectional
area normal to the direction of flow. The velocity through the void spaces is called
the seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the
porosity of the soil:

The volume rate of flow, q, is the product of the average velocity and the cross-
sectional area:
The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore-
size distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles,
and degree of saturation. Some are given in the table below.
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases rapidly with
the degree of saturation.
Some typical values for hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils
Hazen (1930) proposed, empirical relationship for hydraulic conductivity for fairly
uniform sand, i.e. for sand with a small uniformity coefficient, as follows:

This equation is based on Hazen’s observations of loose, clean, filter sands.

A small quantity of silts and clays, when present in a sandy soil, may change the
hydraulic conductivity substantially.
Generally:

Soil permeability: Water can flow through the pore spaces in the soil and the soil is

considered to be ‘permeable’ ; thus, the property of a porous medium such as soil by

virtue of which water (or other fluids) can flow through it is called its ‘permeability’

While all soils are permeable to a greater or a smaller degree, certain clays are more

or less ‘impermeable’ for all practical purposes.

 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the permeability of the soil
1. CONSTANT-HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

 used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.

In this test, water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period.
 After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated cylinder
for a known duration.
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. It is
customary to express the value of k at a temperature of 20ºC. The experimental value (kTºC)

is corrected to this baseline temperature of 20ºC using the following relationship.

FALLING-HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

Due to low hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils, it will take a considerable

time to obtain reasonable discharge volume using the constant-head test.
It is therefore customary to use the falling-head test for such materials. A typical
arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown below.
During this test water from the standpipe flows through the soil. The head of water
(h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times the head of
water is recorded. Let dh be the drop in head over a time period dt. The velocity or
rate of head loss in the tube is
EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL
In stratified soil deposits where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given
direction changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be
computed to simplify calculations. Two cases of flow shall be considered here.
i. FLOW PARALLEL TO STRATIFICATION
When the flow is parallel to the soil layer:
 the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points.
 the flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through
each of the layers.
There is a similarity here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If
we consider a unit width perpendicular of flow, then flow rate is given by:
ii. FLOW PERPENDICULAR TO STRATIFICATION
When the flow is perpendicular to stratification, the head loss in the soil mass is the
sum of the head losses in each of the layers. The velocity of flow through all the
layers is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors in
series.
PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM WELLS

In the field the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of
flow can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells. This process
involves pumping water at a constant flow rate from a test well and measuring the
decrease in groundwater level at observation wells. We shall discuss the case of both
unconfined and confined aquifers.
a. UNCONFINED AQUIFER

The figure below shows a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic
conductivity has to be determined, is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable
layer. During the test, water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has
a perforated casing. Several observation wells at various radial distances are made around the
test well.
Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation
well are made after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The steady
state is established when the water level in the test and observation wells becomes
constant.
Let dh be the drop in the total head over a distance dr. Then the hydraulic gradient is
then i = dh/dr
The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is
A = 2πrh
Where h is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious layer. From Darcy’s
law, the flow rate is q = 2πrh k (dh/dr)
We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2, and h1
and h2:
b. CONFINED AQUIFER

The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with perforated casing that penetrates the full
depth of the aquifer and by observing the piezometer level in a number of
observation wells at various radial distances. Pumping is continued at a uniform rate
q until a steady state is reached.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW (SEEPAGE) OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

INTRODUCTION

In many instances the flow of water through soils is neither one-dimensional nor
uniform over the area perpendicular to flow. It is often necessary to know events
associated with two dimensional flow of water through soil media especially in
hydraulic and earth retaining structures. Seepage is closely associated with effective
stress. Many catastrophic failures happened due to seepage stresses.
SEEPAGE STRESSES
If water is seeping through soil, the effective stress in a soil mass will differ from
that in the static case. Two cases shall be considered: a. Upward seepage, and b.
Downward seepage

The figure below shows a granular soil mass in a permeability setup where an upward
seepage is maintained.
This value of the hydraulic gradient is known as the critical hydraulic gradient. At this stage
the soil will have no resistance, i.e. σ’=0 and acts like a fluid. This phenomenon is known as
boiling, or a quick condition and it usually results in failures of structures like dams and
retaining walls. It should be taken into account when designing water and earth retaining
structures. It is also important to consider boiling when planning excavations in soil strata
underlain by artesian aquifers. The critical hydraulic gradient is approximately 1.0 for most
soils.

Let us now consider a case of downward seepage as shown below.

 SEEPAGE AND LAPLACE’S EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Ground water flow is generally calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow
nets. The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity, which
governs the steady flow condition for a given point in the soil mass.
Let us consider a single row of sheet piles that have been driven into a permeable
soil layer shown below. The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the
downstream side through the permeable soil layer is a two-dimensional flow. An
elemental soil with dimensions dx, dy, and dz is taken from the flow path is selected.
 FLOW NETS

The previous continuity equation for an isotropic medium represents two orthogonal
families of curves. These curves are known as flow lines and equipotential lines. A
flow line is a line along which a water particle travels from the upstream to the
downstream side. An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at
all points is the equal. If piezometers are installed at different points along an
equipotential line, the same water level will be observed in all.
A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a flow net.
Flow nets are important to estimate flow of groundwater. In constructing flow nets
the following requirement must be met.
1. Equipotential lines intersect flow lines at right angles.
2. Flow elements formed are approximate squares.

SEEPAGE CALCULATION FROM FLOW NETS

In any flow net, the strip between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel. T
5. COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundations of structures usually rest on soil. Due to the additional stress introduced
by a foundation or due to other loadings, a soil mass will compress.
This compression is a sum of different and distinct processes:
a. Deformation of soil particles
b. Relocation of soil particles, and
c. Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
In general, soil settlement caused by different loadings can be categorized into three
categories:
i. Immediate settlement (or elastic settlement): such a settlement is caused by the elastic deformation
of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. It is the reduction
in volume of the soil just after the application of the load due to expulsion of air in the voids.

ii. Primary consolidation settlement: the volume of saturated soils under pressure will decrease due to
the expulsion of water from the void spaces.

The associated settlement is known as primary consolidation settlement.

It is usually the predominant in fine grained soils, especially in clays.
iii. Secondary consolidation settlement: this type of settlement is observed in saturated cohesive soils
and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. If follows primary consolidation settlement when
soil is under a constant effective stress. The total settlement of a foundation can then be given by:
The total settlement obtained in this fashion must be within acceptable limits for any
structure. For most practical purposes, the magnitude of the elastic settlement can be
ignored compared to the consolidation settlements. Discussion here shall hence be
limited to consolidation settlement.

But it must be noted that the volume change due to expulsion of air is treated in
geotechnical engineering under the title compaction characteristics of soils
Prior to discussion of soil settlements, discussing the nature of stresses in soils must
be presented. It is due to stresses that soils undergo settlements.
EFFECTIVE STRESS
5.3 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

When a clayey soil is subjected to loading, elastic settlement occurs immediately.

If the loading continues, then its volume goes on compressing gradually due to
removal of water from the pores. This major compression, which goes on for
months and years, is the consolidation, and strictly called the primary consolidation.
During this process, the transfer of load from the soil pores to the soil grains takes
place. Due to this gradual transfer of the excess hydrostatic pressure from the water
to the soil solids, a change in the initial structure of the soil mass (plastic adjustment
of soil fabric) may occur, which may cause some compression, called secondary
compression or secondary consolidation. The time-dependent deformation of
saturated clayey soil can best be understood by considering a simple model that
consists of cylinder with a spring at its center and filled with water. Three cases may
be observed.
The soil specimen is placed inside a metal ring with two porous stones, one at the
top of the specimen and another at the bottom. The specimens are usually 64mm in
diameter and 25mm thick.
The load on the specimen is applied through a lever arm, and compression is
measured by a micrometer dial gauge.
The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24
hours. After that, the load is usually doubled, which doubles the pressure on the
specimen, and the compression measurement is continued. At the end of the test, the
dry weight of the specimen is determined. From load and deformation values, a plot
of deformation versus time for a given load increment is prepared.
From this plot; we can observe three distinct stages, which may be described as:
Stage I Initial compression, which is caused mostly by preloading
Stage II Primary consolidation
Stage III Secondary consolidation
After time-deformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the laboratory, it is
necessary to study the change in the void ratio of the specimen with pressure. The
procedure is described as follows
A soil in the field at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum effective
past pressure in its geologic history.
This maximum effective past pressure may be equal to or less than the existing
effective overburden pressure at the time of sampling. The reduction of effective
pressure in the field may be caused by natural geologic processes or human
activities. During sampling, the existing effective overburden pressure is also
released, which results in some expansion.
When this specimen is subjected to a consolidation test, a small amount of
compression (i.e. a small change in void ratio) will occur when the effective
pressure applied is less than the maximum effective overburden pressure in the field
to which the soil has been subjected to in the past. When the effective pressure on
the specimen becomes greater than the maximum effective past pressure, the change
in void ratio is much larger, and the e-log σ’ relationship is practically linear with a
steeper slope.
This discussion leads to two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:

1. Normally consolidated clays, whose present effective overburden pressure is

the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past
2. Over consolidated clays, whose present effective overburden pressure is less
than that which the soil experienced in the past.
The maximum effective past pressure is called the pre consolidation pressure.

The pre consolidation pressure can be obtained from the e-log σ’ plot following
the procedure suggested by Casagrande
i. By visual inspection, establish point a, at which the e-log σ’ plot has a
minimum radius of curvature

ii. ii. Draw horizontal line ab

iii. iii. Draw the line ac tangent to the curve at a

iv. iv. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the angle bac
v. v. Project the straight-line portion gh of the plot back to intersect line ad at
f. The abscissa of point f is the pre consolidation pressure, σ’c
Settlement calculation from one-dimensional primary consolidation
 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

We have noted earlier that at the end of primary consolidation settlement some
settlement is observed due to the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. This stage of
consolidation is called secondary consolidation. During this phase the plot of
deformation against the log of time is practically linear. The variation of the void
ratio, e, with the time t for a given load increment is shown below.
Secondary consolidation settlement is more important than primary consolidation
settlement:
 in organic and

 highly compressible inorganic soils.

In over consolidated inorganic clays, the secondary compression index is very

small and of less practical significance.
When the soil mass is a compressive force, like all other materials, its volume
decreases. The properties of a soil which a decrease in volume occurs under
compressive forces is known as the compressibility of the soil.

The compression of the soil can occur due to one or more of the following causes.4

1. Compression of soil particles

2. Compression and expulsion of air in the soil

3. expulsion of water in the soils