HYDROLOGY AND WATER

WESOURCES
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Hydrology
 1.0 Introduction
• Definition and Hydrology Applications
• Water Resource System
• Hydrological Cycle
• Water Cycle Balance
• Watershed Characteristics
• Hydrometeorogical Data
 What is Hydrology?
• ‘Hydro’ means Water and ‘Logy’ means Science.
Hence, Hydrology is the science of water
• Definition: Hydrology is a multidisciplinary natural
science that deals with the occurrence, physical
and chemical properties, circulation and
distribution of waters of the earth (surface and
ground-water) and their environmental
relationships, e.g earth’s atmosphere (in the
natural and man-made environments).
• It relates to water quality and quantity.
 What is Hydrology?
• Hydrology is considered a science because it is
concerned with a class or natural phenomenon
governed by general laws which hydrologists seek
to understand and predict.
• It deals with the various forms of moisture that
occur, and the transformation between the liquid ,
solid and gaseous states in the atmosphere and in
the surface layers of land masses.
• It is also concerned with the sea-the source and
store of all the water that activates life on this
planet.
Hydrology is a multi-disciplinary
science
• To study precipitation you may need climatology
and meteorology.
• To study infiltration you may need soil science.
• To study groundwater you may need geology.
• To study surface runoff, you may need
geomorphology.
• To study stream flow, you may need fluid
mechanics.
Water Distribution on the Earth
(USGS, 2006)

6
 Estimate of Global Water Distribution
(“Water Resources,” P.H. Gleick, Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, 1996)

Water volume, Water volume, in Percent of Percent of

Water source
in cubic miles cubic kilometers freshwater total water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 -- 96.54
Ice caps, Glaciers, &
5,773,000 24,064,000 68.7 1.74
Permanent Snow
Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 -- 1.69
Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 -- 0.93
Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice &
71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022
Permafrost
Lakes 42,320 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 20,490 85,400 -- 0.006
Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001
Total 332,500,000 1,386,000,000 - 100 7
How much of Earth’s water is usable to
humans? (USGS, 2006)

8
Surface Water and Groundwater Utilization by
Sector in Malaysia [www.pemsea.org]

9
Water Usage in Malaysia
 Malaysians use an average 300 litres per person a day,
compared with 155 litres in Singapore and 90 litres in
Thailand.
 This is almost double the World Health Organisation’s
(WHO) recommended usage of 165 litres.
 Water conversation and management of water
resources have become essential in all regions.
 Ensure sufficient quantity and quality of water
(including the environment) to its growing population
and urbanization.

10
 What is Hydrology?
• In general hydrology is divided into 2 part:
Research the
Aspect of water
Hydrology Science Occurrence
theory

Research the
Practical aspect,
Hydrology Engineering Using the
knowledge
An important point to remember...

• You are not hydrologists…

• You are engineers who work with hydrology
– Engineers solve problems
– Hydrology is one of your tools to solve
problems
– You must understand your tool...
 Hydrology Applications
• Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power
generation, port development and groundwater (mineral
water) well.
• Designing sewer and drainage systems.
• Mitigation and predicting flood, landslide and drought risk.
• Providing urban drinking water.
• Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural
productivity.
• Determining the water balance of a region.
• Assessing impacts of natural and human induced
environmental change on water resources.
• Assessing export of sediment & nutrients from fields to
water systems.
 Dam Irrigation Schemes

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS )

Flood Drought
 Water Resource System
Water resource system can be mainly categorized into:
1. Water Control System
 Drainage
 Flood Control
 Salinity Control
 Sediment Control
 Pollution Abatement/Reduction

2. Water-Use System
 Water Distribution System for Domestic and Industrial
Water Supply
 Wastewater Treatment System
 Wastewater Collection System
 Hydropower Generation
 Irrigation
 Water Control System
• It is primarily designed to control
the spatial and temporal
distribution of surface runoff
from rainfall events.
• Flood control structures and
storage impoundments reduce
the peak flows in streams, rivers
and drainage channels.
• Flood is defined as a high flow
that exceeds the capacity of a
stream or drainage channel.
 Water-Use System
• Designed to support human
habitation.
• Designed to provide specified levels of
service.
• The design capacity of the systems are
generally dictated by the population
of the service area, commercial and
industrial requirements and the
economic design life of the system.
 Water Resource System
a) A Typical Water Resource System
 Water Resource System
b) Reservoir Design and Operation
* To evaluate the optimum size of the reservoir to meet a given
demand.
* Determine the best operation of the reservoir in the face of
uncertainty of inflows.

History provides a valuable clue to the future.

 Water Resource System
c) Real-Time Operation for Flood Control
* Water level at A is a function of rainfall in the catchment
upstream, evaporation, infiltration, storage, vegetation and
other catchment characteristics. It can be controlled by
operation of upstream reservoirs.

* 1,2 & 3 - reservoirs

2

A
 Water Resource System
d) Optimal Ground Water Development
* Determine the location of wells.
* Optimize the pumping rates.
* Provide solutions that depends on agricultural demand, aquifer
characteristics, energy costs, socio-economic objectives etc.
 Water Resource System
e) Rainfall-Runoff Model
(HEC-HMS)
 Water Resource System
f) Malaysian Flood Traffic SMART Tunnel
 Water Resource System
g) Automated Irrigation System
 Hydrological Cycle
• The hyrological cycle is the system which describes the
distribution and movement of water from the sea to the
atmosphere and hence by precipitation to the earth,
where it collects in streams and runs back to the sea
(Engineering Hydrology, E.M Wilson, 1969)
• The model involves the continual circulation of water
between the oceans, the atmosphere, vegetation and
land.
• Water on the earth exists in a space called hydrosphere.
• The cycle has no beginning or end, and its many
processes occur continuously
Hydrological Cycle (Britannica)
 Hydrological Cycle
 Evaporation of water from the (a) surface sources
like river, lakes, oceans, (b) from the surface of soil,
(c) plants through transpiration. By this process
water is converted into vapour.
 Precipitation in the form of rain, snow, sleet,
drizzle etc.
 Interception: when precipitation occurs it is
intercepted by vegetation. So, this part do not
contribute to the surface water.
 Infiltration: After water reaches the ground it
infiltrates into the ground.
 Hydrological Cycle
 Surface Detention: Some part of the water is stored
in depression present on the ground.
 Surface Runoff: The remaining water which flows
on ground or surface and joins channel is called
surface runoff.
 Ground water flow or inter flow: The water which
infiltrated into ground joins the stream on the later
stage is called inter flow.
 Hydrological Cycle
• Water evaporates from the oceans and the land
surface to become part of the atmosphere; water
vapour is transported and lifted in the atmosphere
until it condenses and precipitates on the land or
the oceans; precipitated water may be intercepted
by vegetation, become overland flow over the
ground surface, infiltrate into the ground, flow
through the soil as subsurface flow, and discharge
into streams as surface runoff.
• Much of the intercepted water and surface runoff
returns to the atmosphere through evaporation.
 Hydrological Cycle
• The infiltrated water may percolate deeper to
recharge groundwater, later emerging in springs
or seeping into streams to form surface runoff,
and finally flowing out the sea or evaporating into
the atmosphere as the hydrologic cycle continues.

Precipitation Stream Flow

Hydrological
Runoff Process Infiltration
includes

Evaporation Groundwater
flow
 Hydrological Cycle
• The cycle may short circuit at several stages, e.g
the precipitation may fall directly in the sea, in
lakes or river courses.
• There is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes.
• The intensity and frequency of the cycle depends
on geography and climate, since it operates as a
result of solar radiation which varies to altitude
and season of the year.
 Hydrological Cycle
• The hydrologic cycle can be considered to
be comprised of three major systems:

1.Atmospheric System
2.Earth System
3.Ocean System
 Hydrological Cycle
• Clearly precipitation, runoff and evaporation are
the principal process that transmit water from
one system to the other.
• Hydrological is one of the complex phenomena
which can be described as one system.
• The global hydrology cycle is divided into 3 sub-
water system:
a. Atmospheric Water System
b. Surface Water System
c. Subsurface Water System
a. Atmospheric Water System
• The process includes:

PERCIPITATION EVAPORATION

INTERCEPTION TRANSPIRATION

CHANNEL PRECIPITATION EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION

b. Surface Water System

DEPRESSION SURFACE
STORAGE RUNOFF

CHANNEL
RAINFALL
TRANSMISSION
EXCESS
c. Subsurface Water System
INFILTRATION SOIL WATER

PERCOLATION INTERFLOW

GROUNDWATER

* Hydrologic system is a structure or volume in space

with boundary line, receiving water or inputs, undergo
internal operation and providing outputs.
 Water Cycle Balance
• Usually the water cycle is in balance, and the
amount of precipitation falling will slowly soak into
the ground and eventually reach the rivers.
• However, if rain does occur for a long period of time
or if the ground is already soaked or saturated with
water, then the chance of flooding is increased.
• The water balance can be expressed for a short
interval or for a long duration.
• For a natural drainage basin or an artificially
separated boundary such as lakes & reservoir.
• For the phase above the ground surface
 A Closed System
• The hydrologic cycle is a good example of a
closed system: the total amount of water is
the same, with virtually no water added to or
lost from the cycle.
• Water just moves from one storage type to
another.
• Water evaporating from the ocean is
balanced by water being returned through
precipitation and surface runoff.
Human Activities to the Cycle
• Although it is a closed system, there is a natural
water balance maintained through energetic
exchanges of water across the land-atmosphere
interface within the system.
• Human activities have the potential to cause the
changes in the natural balance that have impacts on
the environment.
• For example, human activities (primarily the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation) have
increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in
Earth’s atmosphere, warming the planet. This leads
changes in temperature and forcing climate change.
Why is Climate Change a Problem?
Rising temperatures are 250

Sea Level Change (mm)

causing sea levels to
200
increase.
150

Data source: NASA (GISS)

The rising water can cover
100
coastal areas, destroying
habitats and displacing 50
whole populations from low-
0
lying areas.
-50
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year

Rising sea levels are driven by two main processes:

1. Ice Melt: When the atmosphere and ocean get warmer, ice sheets and
glaciers melt, resulting in the addition of fresh water to the ocean.
2. Thermal Expansion: As ocean water gets warmer, it expands, causing
sea levels to rise.
Human Activities to the Cycle
• Some aspects of the hydrologic cycle can be
utilized by humans for a direct economic benefit.
• For example, generation of electricity
(hydroelectric power stations) and flood control
(reservoirs).
• Placing an artificial lakes or pond which can
control the water flow in river to prevent erosion
and sedimentation
Water Cycle Balance
• The water balance equation can be used by
hydrologists to describe the flow of water in and
out of a system.
• A system can be one of several hydrological
domains, such as a column of soil or a drainage
basin.
• Water balance can also refer to the ways in which
an organism maintains water in dry or hot
conditions.
Water Cycle Balance
• The equation uses the principles of conservation
of mass in a closed system, whereby any water
entering a system (via precipitation) must be
transferred into either evaporation, surface runoff
(eventually reaching the channel and leaving in
the form of river discharge), or stored in the
ground.
• When surface runoff contributes water to a
different watershed, the equation must take this
change of incoming runoff into the account.
Water Cycle Balance
• A water balance equation can be used to help
manage water supply and predict where there may
be water shortages.
• The equation also can be used in subsurface
drainage systems, irrigation, runoff assessment,
flood control and pollution control.
• The water balance can be illustrated by using a
graph that plots levels of precipitation and
evaporation often on monthly scale.
 Water Balance Equation
• The conceptual representation of hydrologic systems
can be stated in mathematical terms.
I  Input
dS
I O  O  Output
dt s  storage
t  time
• The basic equation of hydrology:
T  Transpiration
P  R  G  E  T  S /  T E  Evaporation
P  Pr ecipitation
R  Runoff
G  Ground _ water
I  Infiltration
S  Storage
Example 1: Water Balance Equation

In a given year, a watershed with area of 2500

km2 received 130 cm of precipitation. The
average rate of flow measured in a river
draining the watershed was 30 m3/s.
1. Estimate the amount of water lost due to the
combined effects of evaporation,
transpiration and infiltration to ground water.
2. How much runoff reached the river for the
year (in cm)?
3. What is the runoff coefficient?

47
 Solution Example 1
• The water balance equation can be
arranged to produce:
ET  G  I  P  R  S / T
• Assuming that the water levels are the same
for t=0 and t=1 year, then S = 0 and
(30m3 / s)(86400s / day)(365day / yr )(100cm / m)
ET  G  130cm 
(2500km2 )(1000m / km) 2
 130 cm  37 .9cm

48
 Solution Example 1
• ET + G = 92.1cm
• Thus, 92.1cm were lost to ET and G leaving
37.9 cm as runoff to the river.
• The runoff coefficient, defined as runoff
divided by precipitation is.
Runoff coefficient, C=R/P
= 37.9/130
= 0.29

49
Example 2: Water Balance Equation

A watershed receives average annual rainfall

1000 mm/yr, and a river draining the area
with recorded average annual discharge 18
m3/s. Area of the watershed is 103 km2.

Estimate annual evapotranspiration, ET in

mm/year.

50
 Solution Example 2
• Area of watershed = 103 km2
• Average annual rainfall = 1000 mm/year
• Average annual streamflow = 18 m3/s
• ΔS= assume zero ; ΔG= assume zero

ET  G  I  P  R  S / T
• P = ET + Q + 0 + 0
• Q = 18 m3/s = 18 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 m3/yr
• Q = 56.76 x 107 m3/yr
• Area = 103 x 1000 x 1000 = 109 m2
• Q =[56.76 x 107/ 109] = 0.5676 m/yr = 568 mm/yr
• ET = 1000 mm/year -568 mm/yr; ET = 432 mm/year
51
 What is a watershed?
• A watershed is an area of land that drains into a given
river, lake or other water body.
• Watersheds include both streams and rivers that convey
water as well as land surfaces from which water drains
into those channels.
• A watershed is technically a drainage basin because it
acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the
area covered said basin and channelling into a
waterway.
• Unlike municipal boundaries, watershed boundaries are
defined by nature, and can be separated from adjacent
basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill or
mountain.
52
What is a watershed?
Input:
rainfall,
temperature,
wind,
potential ET
etc Hydrologic
Model

Output:
Discharge

Sketch of a watershed

53
Flow chart of a simple watershed
model
Hydrologic Components:
 Precipitation/Rainfall
 Interception
 Depression storage
 Evapotranspiration
 Infiltration
 Surface storage
 Streamflow or total
runoff (overland flow,
interflow and baseflow)
 Groundwater flow

A structure of simple watershed model

(McCuen, 1989)
54
River Basin and Catchment
Area
• Catchment Area: A river drains the water collected
from a specific area, which is called its catchment
area.
• River Basin: An area drained by a river and its
tributaries is called a drainage basin. A river basin is
made up of many different watersheds.
• The catchments of large rivers are called river basins
while those of small rivulets and rills are often
referred to as watersheds.
Difference Between River Basin
and Watershed
Parameters of
River Basin Watershed
Comparison
Size The river basin is large. The watershed is much
smaller.
Drains into The river basin discharges the Water drains the water into
water into larger water bodies. smaller streams and rivers.

Shape The shape of the river basin is Watershed is of different

like a bowl having a curve shapes.
depression in the middle.

Importance It is helpful in agriculture for the It helps prevent floods and

fertile land. droughts.
Examples The Amazon basin, The Ganga The Mississippi River
basin. watershed.
 Delineating a Watershed
• Identify the boundaries of the study area and/or
divide the study area into sub-areas.
• Determine the contributing area for a particular
control point or outlet

57
 Delineating a Watershed
• For natural non-urbanised watershed: use a contour
map/ topographic map
• For a urbanized watershed: use contour map/
topographic map and drainage/sewer network map.
• Contours are imaginary line that connects points of
equal elevation.

Contours Landforms
58
 Delineating a Watershed
• Topographic map provides information about land
elevations and landforms such as mountains, hills,
valleys and plains, streams, roads, building and
many other features.

road

river
landforms

59
 Hilltops

 Ridge is an extension of
the hill.

 Saddle is a lower area,

often on a ridge, between
two hills. Where contour lines
cross streams, they
form a V that always
points upstream.
 Delineating Methods
• DEM Based (Automatic Delineation) - GIS
– Water flows downhill
– Grid cell based approach
– Boundaries created automatically by computer
• Manual Delineation
– Drawing watersheds by clicking the mouse button on
the map
– Requires underlying data for accuracy
– Defines the entire area contributing to flow at an
outlet based on knowledge of topography

61
STEPS TO DELINEATE WATERSHED
1. Place a circle at your
outlet.
2. Highlight Jolly Branch
and other unmarked low
areas that appear to run
into Jolly Branch. Follow
V all the way until it ends.
V indicates valleys or low
areas.
3. Identify and mark all
Valleys that may flow into
Jolly Branch.
4. Now look for hill tops,
ridge lines and saddles
and mark high points with
and X
5. Visualize water flow from
direction of high points to
determine if water would
flow from there to your
stream.
6. Connect high points,
always crossing contours
at right angles.
Source:
S. Jankowfsky, F. Branger, I. Braud, J. Gironas, F. Rodriguez. Comparison of catchment and
network delineation approaches in complex suburban environments. Application to the
Chaudanne catchment, France. Hydrological Processes, Wiley, 2013, 27 (25), p. 3747 -p. 3761.
10.1002/hyp.9506. hal-00925688

A virtual catchment showing:

• the natural and the artificial drainage
network composed of: combined sewer
system and ditches.
• topographical and the maximal
theoretical catchment border
• measurement station at the river
• two outlets of the sewer system located
after connection points to the river.
S. Jankowfsky, F. Branger, I. Braud, J. Gironas, F. Rodriguez. Comparison of catchment and
network delineation approaches in complex suburban environments. Application to the
Chaudanne catchment, France. Hydrological Processes, Wiley, 2013, 27 (25), p. 3747 -p. 3761.
10.1002/hyp.9506. hal-00925688
LAYANG RIVER WATERSHED

COPYRIGHT
PASIR GUDANG BOUNDARY AREA

COPYRIGHT
Watershed Characteristics
• TWO watersheds are NOT identical.
• Watershed is generally grouped into:
1. Climatic Characteristics
2. Physiographical Characteristics

– All the above characteristics affect the

pattern of disposal of stream flow.

68
 Climatic Characteristics
• If the climatic condition is dry before the rainfall,
loss of runoff is more due to infiltration and
evaporation.
• Climatic condition depends on Temperature, Wind
Velocity, Humidity, Transpiration, Evaporation and
Evapotranspiration.
• The more the intensity of rainfall in the watershed,
the more is the peak flow disposal from the region.
• If the duration is less, time taken to dispose with
lower peak flow is also less.

69
 Watershed rainfall moving downstream Watershed rainfall moving downstream
(the peak stream flow of watershed occurs (the peak flow occurs late)
quickly)

 A peak flow assessment of run-off or flood should be accurately worked out,

for the actual design of hydraulic structures like dams, weirs, barrage,
reservoirs, spillways, retaining walls, embankments etc.
 Physiographic Characteristics
Shape:
 Watersheds differ in their shape based on
morphometric parameters like geology and
structure.
 The shape of watershed has a dominant
effect on the characteristics of the hydrograph
of the watershed such as peak flow, overland
flow, and base of hydrograph (run-off time).
(a) fan shaped (b) converging shape

KG =1.6 KG = 1.3 KG = 1.2 KG = 1.1

denoted elongated, semi-oval, oval, and circular shaped watersheds, respectively
Some Gravelius's index KG values for
(c) double fan shaped
different watershed shapes (Musy, 2001)
Effect of watershed shape on flow hydrograph
 Physiographic Characteristics
Size:
 The size of watershed is determined by the size of
stream or river and the development works taken.

.
 For minor irrigation project, size may be few
hundred square kilometers.
 For Tank or Pond Irrigation, size is just few square
kilometers
 Measurement of precipitation as well as water
retention, drainage from the watershed is complex,
for a bigger size of watershed.
Influence of basin
area on runoff volume

Influence of basin
size on runoff
 Physiographic Characteristics
Slope:
 The average slope of a watershed influences
radically the value of the time of concentration
and, directly, the runoff generated by a rainfall.
 If slope is more, the velocity is more, and
hence flood water drains quickly
 results in higher peak discharge
 reduces infiltration
 increases the soil transportation
 Influence of basin slope of runoff
(Gentle slope indicates lesser runoff and Steeper slope indicates
higher runoff)
 Physiographic Characteristics
Drainage:
The Stream Order, Drainage Pattern, and
Drainage Density have a profound influence
on watershed.
It determines the flow characteristics and
erosional behavior.
If drainage density is more, peak runoff is
more.
Effect of Drainage Density on Peak Flow
  First and Second order
streams generally form on
steep slopes and flow
quickly until they slow down
and meet the next order
waterway.
 First to Third Order Streams
generally found in upper
reaches of watershed
 Streams that are classified
through 4th to 6th are called
as medium streams
 If Stream order is larger
than 6th is considered as
river.
Stream Order (Strahler, 1957)
Drainage Pattern
 Drainage Patterns
Pattern Description Controlling influences
random, tree-like branching flat-lying sedimentary rock, thick
Dendritic pattern sediment, or homogeneous rock
uninterrupted by fractures
long (subsequent) streams developed in differentially eroded
follow strike valleys fed by fold belts containing Lithology of
Trellis short tributaries descending varying strengths
from adjacent obsequent and
dip slopes
tributaries radiate away from a central highland such as a
Radial central region volcano or eroding pluton
surrounded by sedimentary rock
Rectangular tributaries make right angle jointed or faulted bedrock
bends
 Physiographic Characteristics

Physiography:
Type of land, its altitude and physical
disposition of a watershed, as to the climate
and planning the activities in greening.
Hilly tract could be useful mainly for Forestry
Plains of populated areas could be utilized
for Crops
 Physiographic Characteristics
Land Use:
 The land in watershed is used for numerous
purposes such as:
 dwelling houses
 cultivation
 livestock
 water harvesting
 roads and railways
 Land use affects the run-off rates.
 Physiographic Characteristics
Vegetation Cover:
 Vegetation cover retard the flow and
increases the infiltration and interception,
there by reducing the peak flow.
 Vegetation cover protects the soil erosion.

Soil:
 The soil such as sand absorbs a larger part of
run-off water, so the rate of flow is less. Clay
soil produces more flow as its absorption is
less.
Physiographic Characteristics
Geology:
 Rocks and their structure control formation
of a watershed itself because their nature
determines size, shape, physiography,
drainage, and groundwater conditions.
 If there are some cracks in rocks joining
surface water and groundwater, a part of
water flows quickly underground.
 Lakes, Storages, Swamp hold a part of
excess rainfall
 Physiographic Characteristics
Hydrology:
 Hydrological parameters such as intensity
and duration of rainfall help in quantification
of water available in watershed.
 If rainfall continues for longer period with low
intensity, evaporation and percolation
increases but run-off is less. Further it may
cause landslide in sloping hillside areas.
 Physiographic Characteristics
Hydrogeology:
 The groundwater demand for irrigation, farm
plantation, drinking water, domestic use and
industrial use is more as it is relatively less
polluted and pure.
 The information about aquifer such as nature,
thickness and characteristics should be
known for planning of watersheds.
 Benchmark Survey
 Benchmark Survey of a watershed is the survey of
basic resources. It is essential for a master plan and
future evaluation and monitoring of the watershed.
 The basic points considered in Benchmark Survey are:
• Physiography (Name, Elevation, Boundaries,
Transportation etc.)
• Climate (Temperature, Wind, Humidity etc.)
• Soil (Type, Depth, Permeability etc.)
• Hydrological Survey (Rainfall, Infiltration,
Evaporation, Evapotranspiration)
• Topographical Survey (Size, Slope, Shape etc.)
• Land Use and Vegetation Survey
• Socio-economic Survey
 Hydrological Data
Hydrologic data are the building blocks for
modelling hydrologic processes. Many sources of
data may be accessed to support model
development and verification, statistical analysis,
and other studies. The quality of data obtained
relates to the attributes of measuring instruments
and to the features of gauging sites. The
capabilities and limitations of measuring devices
must be understood.

89
 Hydrological Data Sources
• Data normally required in the hydrological studies
are:
1. Weather record – temperature, humidity and
wind velocity
2. Streamflow records
3. Infiltration characteristics of the study area
4. Soils of the area
5. Land use and land cover
6. Ground water characteristics
7. Water quality data
 Metrological Data
 Humidity and Water Vapour
 Solar Radiation
 Wind Speed
 Temperature
 Rainfall/Precipitation
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Cloud Physic
 Evaporation
Malaysia Meteorology
Department (MMD)
 Humidity and Water Vapour
 Solar Radiation
 Wind Speed
 Temperature
 Rainfall/Precipitation
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Cloud Physic
Department of Irrigation and
Drainage (DID)
 Watershed
 River network
 Flood Area
 River Flow
 Rainfall
 Sediment
 Evaporation
Department of Environment
(DOE)
 Watershed
 River network
 Water Quality Pollution
 Air Quality Pollution
 Solid Waste Pollution
Exercise 1: Water Balance
A reservoir storage received average annual
rainfall = 1000mm/yr, and inflow from a river into
the reservoir with recorded average discharge 18
m3/s. Given: the reservoir releases 520 million
m3/yr for water used, evaporation 750 mm/year,
and percolation 6 million m3/yr. Reservoir surface
area is 100 km2.

Estimate the annual change in the reservoir

storage, ΔS (in mm).

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Exercise 2: Water Balance
Tasik Bera has a surface area of 70 ha. For the
month of April, the average inflow to the lake is
1.4 m3/s. The average outflow from the lake for
the same period is 1.2m3/s. If the recorded
precipitation for the same month is 7.5 cm, and
the storage volume increased by an estimated
550,000m3, what is the estimated evaporation
from the lake in m3 and cm. Assume there is no
water loss through infiltration out of the bottom
of the lake.

96
 Exercise 2
P = 7.62 cm
E=?

Tasik Bera
Qin = 1.5m3/s
Qout = 1.25m3/s

97
Exercise 3 : Water Balance

A swimming pool measuring 8m x 10m x 2m

has a small leak at the bottom, Measurements
of rainfall, evaporation and water level are
taken daily for 10 days to determine what
should be done for repair. Estimate the average
daily leakage out of the pool in m3/day. .

98
Exercise 3 : Water Balance

Day Rainfall Evaporation Water level

(mm) (mm) (m)
1 0 15 2
2 25 0
3 0 14
4 50 0
5 0 15
6 0 12
7 100 0
8 0 15
9 0 15
10 0 16 1.75

99
Thank You