CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In concrete construction, the concrete represents a very large proportion of the total load
on the structure, and there are clearly considerable advantages in reducing its density.
This can be done by using light weight concrete. Lightweight concrete can be defined as
a type of concrete which includes an expanding agent in that it increases the volume of
the mixture thereby reducing dead weight. The lower density and higher insulating
capacity are the most obvious characteristics of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
(LWAC) by which it distinguishes itself from „ordinary‟ Normal Weight Concrete
(NWC).
A self-compacting concrete (SCC) is the one that can be placed in the form and can go
through obstructions by its own weight and without the need of vibration. The major
advantage of this method is that SCC technology offers the opportunity to minimize or
eliminate concrete placement problems in difficult conditions. It avoids having to repeat
the same kind of quality control test on concrete, which consumes both time and labor.
It eliminates the need for vibration & reducing the noise pollution. It improves the
filling capacity of highly congested structural members.
The concrete made with concrete wastes which are eco-friendly so called as Green
concrete. Most people associate GREEN concrete with concrete that is colored with
pigment. However, it is also referred which has not less carbon dioxide than normal
concrete is green concrete. Today the word green is not just limited to colour, it
represents the environment, which is surrounding us.

The nanotechnology generated products have unique characteristics and can

significantly fix current construction problems, and may change the requirement and
organization of construction process. Concrete the most ubiquitous material in the world
is a nano-structured, multi-phase composite material that ages over time.
Nanotechnology is one of the most active research areas that include a number of
disciplines including civil engineering and construction materials. Nanotechnology is
the understanding, control, and restructuring of matter on the order of nanometers (i.e.,
less than 100 nm) to create materials with fundamentally new properties and
functions. Nano concrete is defined as a concrete made by filling the pores in
traditional concrete using nano particles of size <500nano meters. Nano particles of

1
silica turn into nanoparticles of cement (nano cement) in the chemical reactions that take
place in the concoction of the concrete. When concrete is reduced to nano level its
properties are strongly influenced so that it increases their strength & durability.

While going through the study, it is noticed that the main drawback of concrete is that it
easily produce crack, due to its low tensile strength. It is a well known fact the concrete
structures are very susceptible to cracking which allows chemicals and water to enter
and degrade the concrete, reducing the performace of structure and expensive
maintenance in the form of repairs. Cracks in concrete occur due to various mechanisms
such as shrinkage, freeze-thaw reactions and mechanical compressive and tensile forces.
Cracks in concrete are inevitable and are one of the inherent weaknesses of concrete.
Water and other salts seep through these cracks, corrosion initiates and thus reduces the
life of concrete. So there was a need to develop an inherent biomaterial, a self-repairing
material which can remediate cracks and fissures in concrete. Bacillus genus bacteria
can be used as a solution to this problem.

2
 CHAPTER 2
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Lightweight concrete can be defined as a type of concrete which includes an expanding
agent in that it increases the volume of the mixture while giving additional qualities
such as nailbility and lessened the dead weight. It is lighter than the conventional
concrete. The use of lightweight concrete has been widely spread across countries such
as USA, United Kingdom and Sweden. The main specialties of lightweight concrete are
its low density and thermal conductivity. Its advantages are that there is a reduction of
dead load, faster building rates in construction and lower haulage and handling costs.
Lightweight concrete maintains its large voids and not forming laitance layers or cement
films when placed on the wall. This research was based on the performance of aerated
lightweight concrete. However, sufficient water cement ratio is vital to produce
adequate cohesion between cement and water. Insufficient water can cause lack of
cohesion between particles, thus loss in strength of concrete. Likewise too much water
can cause cement to run off aggregate to form laitance layers, subsequently weakens in
strength. Therefore, this fundamental research report is prepared to show activities and
progress of the lightweight concrete. Focused were on the performance of aerated
lightweight concrete such as compressive strength tests, water absorption and density
and supplementary tests and comparisons made with other types of lightweight
concrete.

It is lighter than the conventional concrete with a dry density of 300kg/m3up to 1840
kg/m3; 87 to 23% lighter. In recent years, more attention has been paid to the
development of lightweight aggregate concrete. The specific gravity of concrete can be
lowered either by using porous, therefore lightweight aggregates instead of ordinary
ones, or introducing air into the mortar, or removing the fine fractions of aggregate and
compacting concrete only partially. In all cases, the main goal is to introduce voids into
the aggregate and the mortar or between mortar and aggregate. A combination of these
methods can also be made in order to reduce further the weight of concrete. The use of
lightweight aggregates is by far the simplest and most commonly used method of
making a lightweight concrete.

3
2.2. TYPES OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete can be prepared either by injecting air in its composition or it can
be achieved by omitting the finer sizes of the aggregate or even replacing them by a
hollow, cellular or porous aggregate. Particularly, lightweight concrete can be
categorized into three groups:-
i) No fines concrete
ii) Lightweight aggregate concrete
iii) Aerated/Foamed concrete

2.2.1. NO-FINES CONCRETE

No-fines concrete can be defined as a lightweight concrete composed of cement and fine
aggregate. Uniformly distributed voids are formed throughout its mass. The main
characteristics of this type of lightweight concrete is it maintains its large voids and not
forming laitance layers or cement film when placed on the wall.

Fig 2.1 No-Fines Concrete

(Source: www.stevensonconcrete.co.nz)

No-fines concrete usually used for both load bearing and non-load bearing for external
walls and partitions. The strength of no-fines concrete increases as the cement content is
increased. However, it is sensitive to the water composition. Insufficient water can
cause lack of cohesion between the particles and therefore, subsequent loss in strength
of the concrete. Likewise too much water can cause cement film to run off the aggregate
form laitance layers, leaving the bulk of the concrete deficient in cement and thus
weakens the strength.

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2.2.2. LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE
Porous lightweight aggregate of low specific gravity is used in this lightweight concrete
instead of ordinary concrete. The lightweight aggregate can be natural aggregate such as
pumice, scoria and all of those of volcanic origin and the artificial aggregate such as
expanded blast-furnace slag, vermiculite and clinker aggregate. The main characteristic
of this lightweight aggregate is its high porosity which results in a low specific gravity.
The lightweight aggregate concrete can be divided into two types according to its
application. One is partially compacted lightweight aggregate concrete and the other is
the structural lightweight aggregate concrete. The partially compacted lightweight
aggregate concrete is mainly used for two purposes i,e., for precast concrete blocks or
panels and cast in-situ roofs and walls. This type of concrete should have adequate
strength and a low density to obtain the best thermal insulation and a low drying
shrinkage to avoid cracking.

Structurally lightweight aggregate concrete is fully compacted similar to that of the

normal reinforced concrete of dense aggregate. It can be used with steel reinforcement
as to have a good bond between the steel and the concrete. The concrete should provide
adequate protection against the corrosion of the steel. The shape and the texture of the
aggregate particles and the coarse nature of the fine aggregate tend to produce harsh
concrete mixes. Only the denser varieties of lightweight aggregate are suitable for use in
structural concrete.

Fig 2.2 Lightweight aggregate Concrete

(Source; www.quarrymagazine.com)

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2.2.3. AERATED CONCRETE
Aerated concrete does not contain coarse aggregate, and can be regarded as an aerated
mortar. Typically, aerated concrete is made by introducing air or other gas into a cement
slurry and fine sand. IN commercial practice, the sand is replaced by pulverized fuel ash
or other siliceous material, and lime maybe used instead of cement. There are two
methods to prepare the aerated concrete. The first method is to inject the gas into the
mixing during its plastic condition by means of a chemical reaction.In second method,
air is introduced either by mixing stable foam or by whipping-in air, using an air-
entraining agent. The first method is usually used in precast concrete factories where the
precast units are autoclaved in order to produce concrete with a reasonable high strength
and low drying shrinkage. The second method is mainly used for in-situ concrete,
suitable for insulation roof screeds or pipe lagging.

Fig 2.3 Aerated Concrete

(Source; www.researchgate.net)

There are several ways in which aerated concrete can be manufactured.

(a) By the formation of gas by chemical reaction within the mass during liquid or
plastic state.
(b) By mixing preformed stable foam with the slurry

Gasification method is the most widely adopted methods using aluminium powder or
such other similar material. It is adopted in the large scale manufacture of aerated
concrete in the factory wherein the whole process is mechanised and the product is
subjected to high pressure steam curing, in other words, the products are autoclaved.
The differences between the types of lightweight concrete are very much related to its

6
aggregate grading used in the mixes. Table 2.1 shows the types and grading of
aggregate suitable for the different types of lightweight concrete.

Table 2.1: Types and Grading of Lightweight Concrete

Type of Type of Aggregate Grading of aggregate

Lightweight
Concrete
No-fines concrete Natural aggregate
Blast furnace slag
Clinker
Partially compacted Clinker
lightweight aggregate Foamed slag
concrete Expanded clay,shale, slate,
vermiculite and perlite
Sintered pulverized-fuel ash
and pumice
Structural lightweight Foamed slag
aggregate concrete Expanded clay, shale or
slate and sintered pulverized with an increased fines content
fuel ash
Aerated concrete Natural fine aggregate Fine
lightweight aggregate Raw
pulverized-fuel ash Ground
slag and burnt shales
(Range of particle size)
Normal single sized material
between 20mm and 10mm BS
sieve
May be of smaller nominal
single sizes of combined coarse
and fine(5mm and fines)
material to produce a continuous
but harsh grading to make a
porous concrete.
Continues grading from either
20mm or 14mm down to dust,
(5mm and fines) to produce a
workable and dense concrete
The aggregate are generally
ground down to finer powder,
passing a 75 µm BS sieves, but
sometimes fine aggregate (5mm
and fines) is also incorporated.

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2.3 ADVANTAGES
 LWC has rapid and relatively simple construction.
 They are economical in terms of transportation as well as reduction in manpower.
 Significant reduction of overall weight due to LWC results in saving structural
frames, footing or piles.
 Most of lightweight concrete have better nailing and sawing properties than heavier
and stronger conventional concrete.

2.4 DISADVANTAGES
 LWC is very sensitive with water content in the mixtures.
 They are difficult to place and finish because of the porosity and angularity of the
aggregate. In some mixes the cement mortar may separate the aggregate and float
towards the surface.
 Mixing time of it is longer than conventional concrete to assure proper mixing.

The use of lightweight aggregate in concrete has many advantages. These include:

(a) Reduction of dead load that may result in reduced footings sizes and lighter and
smaller upper structure. This may result in reduction in cement quantity and
possible reduction in reinforcement.
(b) Lighter and smaller pre-cast elements needing smaller and less expensive handling
and transporting equipment.
(c) Reductions in the sizes of columns and slab and beam dimensions that result in
larger space availability.
(d) High thermal insulation.
(e) Enhanced fire resistance

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2.5 APPLICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete has been used since the eighteen centuries by the Romans. The
application on the „The Pantheon‟ where it uses pumice aggregate in the construction of
cast in-situ concrete is the proof of its usage. In USA and England in the late nineteenth
century, clinker was used in their construction for example the „British Museum‟ and
other low cost housing. The lightweight concrete was also used in construction during
the First World War. The United States used mainly for shipbuilding and concrete
blocks. The foamed blast furnace-slag and pumice aggregate for block making were
introduced in England and Sweden around 1930s.

Nowadays with the advancement of technology, lightweight concrete expands its uses.
For example, in the form of perlite with its outstanding insulating characteristics. It is
widely used as loose-fill insulation in masonry construction where it enhances fire
ratings, reduces noise transmission, does not rot and termite resistant. It is also used for
vessels, roof decks and other applications. Following are some examples of lightweight
concrete used in different forms.

Fig 2.4 Building of „The Pantheon‟

(Source: www.builtconstructions.in)

9
 CHAPTER 3
SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Self-compacting concrete is a concrete that can be compacted into every corner of a
formwork purely by means of its own weight, without using any external vibrators. This
concrete was first developed in Japan in late 80‟s by Prof. Okamura. The major
advantage of this method is that SCC technology offers the opportunity to minimize or
eliminate concrete placement problems in difficult conditions. It consumes both time
and labour. Construction and placing becomes faster & easier. It eliminates the need for
vibration & reducing the noise pollution. It improves the filling capacity of highly
congested structural members.

3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF SCC

SSC is something different than the conventional concrete or modification of
conventional concrete it has similar ingredients such as aggregate binder, however there
blending is changed so as to get the advantage of self compactness.

3.2.1 Cement:-
Generally Portland Cement of grade 43 or 53 is used.

3.2.2 Aggregates:-
The maximum size of aggregate is generally limited to 20mm. Aggregate of size 10mm
is desirable for structures having congested reinforcement. Whenever possible, size of
aggregates higher than 20mm could also be used. Well graded cubical or rounded
aggregate are desirable.

3.2.3 Water:-
Ordinary potable water of normally pH7 is used mixing and curing the concrete
specimen.

3.2.4 Admixtures:-
An admixture is a material other than water, aggregates and cement and is added to the
batch immediately before or during its mixing. Admixtures are used to improve or give
special properties to concrete. The use of admixture should offer an improvement not
economically attainable by adjusting the proportions of cement and aggregates and
10
should not adversely affect any properties of concrete. The admixture is generally added
in a relatively minute quantity.

3.2.4.1 Chemical admixtures

Superplasticizer
GleniumTMSKY 784 is used because it is the essential component of SCC to provide
necessary workability.
Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA)
Other types may be incorporated as necessary, such as Glenium Sky is used for stability
to improve freeze-thaw resistance, and retarders for Control of Setting.

3.2.4.2 Mineral admixtures

Fly Ash:- Fly ash in an appropriate quantity may be added to improve the quality and
durability of SCC.
Silica Fume:-Silica fume is added to improve the properties, strength and durability of
SCC.

3.3 PROPERTIES OF SCC

3.3.1 Filling Ability

Self compacting concrete must be able to flow into all the spaces within the formwork
under its own weight. The mechanism that governs this property are high fluidity and
cohesion of the mixture.

3.3.2 Passing Ability

Self compacting concrete must flow through tight openings such as spaces between steel
reinforcing bars under its own weight. The mix must not block during placement. The
mechanism that governs this property are the viscosity and cohesion of the mixture.

3.3.3 High Resistance to Segregation

Self compacting concrete must meet the distribution of aggregate particles remains
homogeneous in both vertical and horizontal direction.

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3.4 TESTS CONDUCTED ON SCC

3.4.1 Slump flow test

The slump flow test is used to find the filling ability of concrete. The diameter of the
concrete circle is a measure for the filling ability of concrete.
 Apparatus:
Slump cone, trowel, scoop, ruler, stopwatch
 Procedure:
 About 6 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally.
 Moisten the base plate and inside of slump cone.
 Place base plate on level stable ground and the slump cone centrally on the base
plate and hold down firmly.
 Fill the cone with the scoop. Do not tamp, simply strike off the concrete level
with the top of the cone with trowel.
 Remove any surplus concrete from around the base of the cone.
 Raise the cone vertically and allow the concrete to flow out freely.
 Simultaneously, start the stopwatch and record the time taken for the concrete to
reach the 500mm spread circle.(This is T50 time).
 Measure the final diameter of the concrete in two perpendicular directions‟
 Calculate the average of the two measured diameters(This is slump flow in mm)

Fig 3.1 Slump flow test apparatus

(Source: studiumbook.com)
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3.4.2 L-box test
L-Box test is used to find the passing ability of concrete.
 Apparatus:
L box of a stiff non absorbing material, trowel, scoop, stopwatch
 Procedure:
 About 14 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally.
 Set the apparatus level on firm ground, ensure that the sliding gate can open
freely and close it.
 Moisten the inner surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water
 Fill the vertical section of the apparatus with the concrete sample and leave it
stand for 1 minute.
 Lift the sliding gate and allow the concrete to flow out into the horizontal
section.
 Simultaneously, start the stopwatch and record the times taken for the concrete
to reach the 200 and 400mm marks.
 When the concrete stops flowing, the distance h1 and h2 are measured.
 Calculate h2/h1 , the blocking ratio

Fig 3.2 L-Box test apparatus

(Source: researchgate.net)

13
3.4.3 U-box test
U-Box test is done to measure the passing ability of concrete.
 Apparatus:
U box of a stiff non absorbing material, trowel, scoop, stopwatch
 Procedure:
 About 20 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally.
 Set the apparatus level on firm ground, ensure that the sliding gate can open
freely and then close it.
 Moisten the inside surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water.
 Fill the one compartment of the apparatus with the concrete sample and leave it
to stand for 1 minute.
 Lift the sliding gate and allow the concrete to flow out into the other
compartment.
 After the concrete has come to rest,measure the height of the concrete in the
compartment has been filled in two places and calculate the mean (H1) and also
the height in the other compartment(H2).
 Calculate H1-H2, the filling height

Fig 3.3 U-Box test apparatus

(Source: theconstructor.org)

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3.5 ADVANTAGES
 Improved quality and strength
 SCC can be set at a quicker rate with no mechanical vibration
 Improved and more uniform design surface completion
 Improved pumpability
 Reduction in site manpower
 Problems caused by vibrators are reduced
 Easy to place
 Faster construction
 Better surface finish
 Improves durability due to better compaction and homogeneity of concrete

3.6 DISADVANTAGES
 Higher paste volume results in greater shrinkage and creep
 It requires more trial batches
 The mix design and procedure adopted is too complicated for practical
implementation
 Costlier than conventional concrete based on materials (except placement costs)
 Longer setting time and lower initial strengths
 More precise measurement and monitoring of the constituent material

15
 CHAPTER 4
GREEN CONCRETE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The concrete is made with concrete wastes which are eco-friendly, so called as Green
concrete. The other name for green concrete is resource saving structures with reduced
environmental impact for e.g. Energy saving, reducing C02emissions, waste water.
Green concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. This was first
invented in Denmark in the year 1998 by Dr.WG. Most people associate GREEN
concrete with concrete that is colored with pigment. However, it is also referred which
has not yet hardened. But in the context of this topic, green concrete is taken to mean
environmental friendly concrete. This means concrete that uses less energy in its
production & produces less carbon dioxide than normal concrete is green concrete.

4.2 NEED OF GREEN CONCRETE

Cement production accounts for more than 6% of all CO2 emission which is a major
factor in the world global warming (Greenhouse gas). India is the third largest cement
producer in the World and one of the largest consumers of cement per capita in the
world. Rough figures are that India consumes about 1.2 Ton/year/capita, while as World
average is 0.6 Ton/year/capita. The main ingredient in concrete is cement and it consists
of limestone (Calcium Carbonate CaCO3). During manufacture of cement, its
ingredients are heated to about 1400 – 1500 degree C. During this process the Carbon
dioxide is driven off. Approximately 1kg of cement releases about 900gms of Carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore the use of green concrete will reduce the
emission of carbondioxide since it is made by the partial replacement of materials in
conventional concrete.

4.3 FEATURES OF GREEN CONCRETE

There have been a number of efforts about reducing the CO2 emissions from concrete
primarily through the use of lower amounts of cement and higher amounts of
supplementary cementitious material (SCM) such as fly ash, blast furnace slag etc. CO2
emissions from 1 ton of concrete produced vary between 0.05 to 0.13 tons. 95% of all

16
CO2 emissions from a cubic meter of concrete is from cement manufacturing. It is
important to reduce CO2 emissions through the greater use of SCM.

4.3.1 Cement
Most of CO2 in concrete is from the cement manufacturing process. A typical cubic
meter of concrete contains about 10% cement by weight. Out of all ingredients, cement
gives out most carbon dioxide. The reaction in the process of Cement manufacture is:
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

4.3.2 Aggregate
Use of virgin aggregates contributes about 1% of all CO2 emissions from a typical cubic
meter of concrete. Therefore, the use of alternate aggregate is desirable. The use of local
and recycled aggregates is desirable as it can reduce transportation and fuel cost and
support sustainable development.

4.3.3 Resources
The growing shortage of natural aggregate and sand is another aspect the construction
industry must consider. While this may not appear to be a priority topic, pressure from
environmentalist and conservationists worldwide will continue to encourage both
legislators and construction engineers to look for viable alternatives to natural resources.
Use of recycled materials like aggregate, water is some ingredient which should be
encouraged since fresh resources are becoming increasingly scar.Obtaining the most
suitable mix based on the specification or suggesting improvements in the mix is to
assist with the most suitable concrete for the project. The concrete which can fall in the
category of green must have the following characteristics.
 Optimizes use of available material
 Better Performance
 Enhanced cohesion workability / consistency
 Reduced shrinkage / creep.
 Durability - Better service life of concrete
 Reduced carbon footprint
 No increase in cost
 LEED India Certification
Green concrete mix is designed with the principle of "Particle-Packing Optimization" to
meet requirements of plastic and hardened properties.
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4.4 MATERIALS FOR GREEN CONCRETE
Green construction materials are composed of renewable, rather than non-renewable
resources. Green materials are environmentally responsible because impacts are
considered over the life of the product.

4.4.1 Locally available construction materials

Components and systems found locally or regionally, saving energy and resources in
transportation to the project site.

4.4.2 Salvaged, re-furnished, or re-manufactured

Includes saving a material from disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or
generally improving the appearance, performance, quality, functionality, or value of a
product.

4.4.3 Reusable or recyclable

Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or recycled at the end of their
useful life. Recycled materials that the industry has found to perform favorably as
substitutes for conventional materials include: fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag,
recycled concrete, demolition waste, microsilica etc. Following materials can be
considered in this category. The table 4.1 shows the materials used for green concrete.

Recycled demolition Recycled concrete

aggregate Blast furnace slag
waste concrete

M sand Glass aggregate Fly ash

Table 4.1 Materials for green concrete

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4.5 PRODUCTION OF GREEN CONCRETE
Concrete with inorganic residual products are used in this concrete. Ceramic wastes
used as green aggregates, by replacing cement with fly ash or micro silica in larger
amounts, to develop new green cements and binding materials (i.e. by increasing the use
of alternative raw materials and alternative fuels, and by developing/improving cement
with low energy consumption). To use residual products from the concrete industry, i.e.
stone dust (from crushing of aggregate) and concrete slurry (from washing of mixers
and other equipment). To use new types of cement with reduced environmental impact.
(mineralized cement, limestone addition, waste-derived fuels).

4.6 APPLICATIONS OF GREEN CONCRETE

Green concrete has been used for the construction of green concrete bridge, green
concrete dam, green concrete columns etc.

Fig 4.1 Green concrete dam

(Source: www.wikipedia.com)

19
 Fig 4.2 Green concrete bridge
(Source: www.wikipedia.com)

4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

Geopolymer concrete, or green concrete, is part of a movement to create construction
materials that have a reduced impact on the environment. It is made from a combination
of an inorganic polymer and 25 to 100 percent industrial waste. Here is a list of 4
benefits to using green concrete for your next project.

4.7.1 Lasts Longer

Green concrete gains strength faster and has a lower rate of shrinkage than concrete
made only from Portland Cement. Structures built using green concrete have a better
chance of surviving a fire (it can withstand temperatures of up to 2400 degrees on the
Fahrenheit scale). It also has a greater resistance to corrosion which is important with
the effect in pollution has had on the environment (acid rain greatly reduces the
longevity of traditional building materials). All of those factors add up to a building that
will last much longer than one made with ordinary concrete. Similar concrete mixtures
have been found in ancient Roman structures and this material was also used in the
Ukraine in the 1950s and 1960s. Over 40 years later, those Ukrainian buildings are still
standing. If buildings are not constantly having to be rebuilt, fewer construction
materials are needed and the impact to the environment during the process of making
those materials is reduced.

20
4.7.2 Uses Industrial Waste
Instead of a 100 percent Portland cement mixture, green concrete uses anywhere from
25 to 100 percent fly ash. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion and is gathered
from the chimneys of industrial plants (such as power plants) that use coal as a power
source. There are copious amounts of this industrial waste product. Hundreds of
thousands of acres of land are used to dispose of fly ash. A large increase in the use of
green concrete in construction will provide a way to use up fly ash and hopefully free
many acres of land.

4.7.3 Reduces Energy Consumption

If you use less Portland cement and more fly ash when mixing concrete, then you will
use less energy. The materials that are used in Portland cement require huge amounts of
coal or natural gas to heat it up to the appropriate temperature to turn them into Portland
cement. Fly ash already exists as a byproduct of another industrial process so you are
not expending much more energy to use it to create green concrete.
Another way that green concrete reduces energy consumption is that a building
constructed from it is more resistant to temperature changes.

4.7.4 Reduces CO2 Emissions

In order to make Portland cement–one of the main ingredients in ordinary cement–
pulverized limestone, clay, and sand are heated to 1450 degrees C using natural gas or
coal as a fuel. This process is responsible for 5 to 8 percent of all carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions worldwide. The manufacturing of green concrete releases has up to 80
percent fewer CO2 emissions. As a part of a global effort to reduce emissions, switching
over completely to using green concrete for construction will help considerably.

4.8 ADVANTAGES
Advantage of Green Concrete: It will give enhanced cohesion, so user friendly - easier
to place, compact & finish concrete. It can be seen in concrete slump also. Some other
advantages of such mix are:
 Optimized mix designs mean easier handling, better consistency and easier
finishing.
 Reduction in shrinkage & creep.
 Green Concrete uses local and recycled materials in concrete.

21
  The heat of hydration of green concrete is significantly lower than traditional
concrete.This result in a lower temperature rise in large concrete pours which is
a distinct advantage for green concrete.

4.9 LIMITATION
The limitations of using green concrete includes:
 By using stainless steel, cost of reinforcement increases.
 Structures constructed with green concrete have comparatively less life than
structures with conventional concrete.
 Split tension of green concrete is less than that of conventional concrete.

4.10 SCOPE IN INDIA

Green concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. As green
concrete is made with concrete wastes it does take more time to come in India because
industries having problem to dispose wastes. Also it is having reduced environmental
impact with reduction in CO2 emission.

22
 CHAPTER 5
NANO CONCRETE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is one of the most active research areas that include a number of
disciplines including civil engineering and construction materials. Nanotechnology is
the understanding, control, and restructuring of matter on the order of nanometers
(i.e., less than 100 nm) to create materials with fundamentally new properties
and functions. Nanotechnology encompasses two main approaches: (i) the “top down”
approach, in which larger structures are reduced in size to the nanoscale while
maintaining their original properties or deconstructed from larger structures into their
smaller, composite parts and (ii) the “bottom-up" approach, also called “molecular
nanotechnology” or “molecular manufacturing,” in which materials are engineered
from atoms or molecular components through a process assembly or self-assembly.
Traditionally nanotechnology has been concerned with developments in the fields of
microelectronics, medicine and material sciences. However the potential for
applications of many developments in the nanotechnology field in the area of
construction engineering is growing. The evolution of technology “and instrumentation
as well as its related scientific areas such as physics and chemistry is making the
nanotechnology aggressive and evolutional.

There are many potential areas where nanotechnology can benefit construction
engineering like its applications in concrete, structural composites, coating materials
and in nano-sensors, etc. Nanotechnology products can be used for design and
construction processes in many areas. The nanotechnology generated products have
unique characteristics, and can significantly fix current construction problems, and may
change the requirement and organization of construction process. The recent
developments in the study and manipulation of materials and processes at the nanoscale
offer the great „prospect of producing new macro materials, properties and products.
But till date, nanotechnology applications and advances in the construction and building
materials fields have been uneven. Exploitation of nanotechnology in concrete on a
commercial scale remains limited with few results successfully converted into
marketable products. The main advances have been in the nano science of cementitious

23
materials with an increase in the knowledge and understanding of basic phenomena in
cement at the nanoscale.

5.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY AND CONCRETE

Concrete, the most ubiquitous material in the world, is a nanostructure, multi-phase,
composite material that ages over time. It is composed of an amorphous phase,
nanometer to micrometer size crystals, and bound water. The amorphous phase,
calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) is the “glue” that holds concrete together and is
itself a nonmaterial. Viewed from the bottom-up, concrete at the nanoscale is a
composite of molecular assemblages, surfaces (aggregates, fibers), and chemical bonds
that interact through local chemical reactions, intermolecular forces, and intraphase
diffusion. Properties characterizing this scale are molecular structure; surface
functional groups; and bond length, strength and density. The structure of the
amorphous and crystalline phases and of the interphase boundaries originates from this
scale. The properties and processes at the nanoscale define the interactions that
occur between particles and phases at the micro scale and the effects of working loads
and the surrounding environment at the macro scale. Processes occurring at the
nanoscale ultimately affect the engineering properties and performance of the bulk
material. There are two main avenues of applications of nanotechnology in concrete
research the nanoscience and nano-engineering. Nanoscience deals with the
measurement and characterization of the nano and micro scale structure of cement
based materials to better understand how this structure affects macro scale properties
and performance through the use of advanced characterization techniques and atomistic
or molecular level modeling. Nano- engineering encompasses the techniques of
manipulation of the structure at the nanometer scale to develop a new generation of
tailored, multifunctional, cementitious composites with superior mechanical
performance and durability potentially having a range of novel properties such
as: low electrical resistivity, self-sensing capabilities, self-cleaning, self- healing,
high ductility, and self-control of cracks. Concrete can be nano-engineered by the
incorporation of nano sized building blocks or objects (e.g., nanoparticles and
nanotubes) to control material behavior and add novel properties,

24
5.3 NANO MATERIALS
1) CARBON NANOTUBES
2) NANO-SILICA
3) POLYCARBOXYLATES

5.3.1 Carbon nano tubes

 Carbon nano tubes are molecular scale tubes of graphitic carbon with
outstanding properties.
 They can be several millimeters in length and can have one " layer" or wall (
single walled nano tubes) or more than one wall ( multiwalled nano tubes)
Properties
1) CNT is highly flexible
2) Mechanically, CNT appear to be the strongest material.
3) The smaller diameters.
4) Stiffest and strongest fibers

5.3.2 Nano silica

 Is the first nano product that replaced the micro silica
 Advancement made by the study of concrete at nano scale have used in
conventional concrete
Properties
1) High compressive strengths concretes
2) High workability with reduced water/cement ratio
3) Use of super plasticizing additives is unnecessary
4) Fill up all the micro pores and micro spaces
5) Cement saving up to35-45%

5.3.3 Polycaboxylates
 Polycaboxylates or polymer based concrete admixtures are High Range Water
 Reducing admixtures(HRWR)
 Low dosage-reduce water as much as high dosage of conventional admixtures.
 Higher dosage-produce Self Compacting Concrete(SCC)
 This admixture type is very suitable for underwater anti-washout concrete.

25
5.4 ADDITION OF NANO-SIZED MATERIALS
Nano sized particles have a high surface area to volume ratio, providing the potential
for tremendous chemical reactivity. Much of the work to date with nanoparticles
has been with nano-silica (nano-SiO2) and nano-titanium oxide (nanoTlO2) .There are
a few studies on incorporating nano-iron (nano-Fe2O3), nano-alumina (nan0„N203),
and nanoclay particles. Additionally, a limited number of investigations are
dealing with the manufacture of nano-sized cement particles and the development of
nano-binders . Nanoparticles can act as nuclei for cement phases, further promoting
cement hydration due to their high reactivity, as nano-reinforcement, and as filler,
denifying the microstructure and the ITZ, thereby, leading to a reduced porosity. The
most significant issue for all nanoparticles is that of effective dispersion. Though it is
particularly significant at high loadings, even low loadings experience problems
with self-aggregation, which reduces the benefits of their small size and creates un-
reacted pockets leading to a potential for concentration of stresses in the material.

5.4.1 Nano-SiO
NanoSiO has been found to improve concrete workability and strength, to increase
resistance to water penetration and to help control the leaching of calcium, which is
closely associated with various types of concrete degradation. Nano-SiO2, additionally)
was shown to accelerate the hydration reactions of both C38 and an ash. Cement mortar
as a result of the large and highly reactive surface of the nanoparticles. Nano-SiO2 was
found to be more. Efficient in enhancing strength than silica fume. Addition of 10%
nano-SiO2 with dispersing agents was observed to increase the compressive strength
of cement „mortars at 28 days by as much as 26%, compared to only a 10% increase
with the addition of 15% silica fume. Even the addition of small amounts (0.25%) of
nano-Si02 was observed to increase the strength improving the 28 day compressive
strength by 10% and flexural strength by 25% it was noted that the „ results obtained
depended on the production route and Conditions of synthesis of the nano-Si02 (e 9.,
molar ratios of the reagents, type of reaction media, and duration of the reaction for the
sol-gel method) and that dispersion of the nanoSi02 In the paste plays an important
role. NanoSi02 not only behaved as a filler to improve the microstructure but also as
an activator to promote pozzolonic reactions.

26
 Fig 5.2 The Gärtnerplatzbrücke across the Fulda in Kassel River made of ultra high
performance concrete.
(Source: www.study mafia.com)
5.4.2 Nano-Ti02
Nano-Ti02 has proven very effective for the self-cleaning off concrete and provides the
additional benefit of helping to clean the environment. Nano-TiO2 containing
concrete acts by triggering a photocatalytic degradation of pollutants, such as NO2,
carbon monoxide, VOCs, chlorophenols, and aldehydes from vehicle and industrial
emissions. “Self-cleaning” and “de-polluting" concrete products are already being
produced by several companies for use in the facades of buildings (e.g., the Jubilee
Church in Rome, Italy). In addition to imparting self-cleaning properties, a few
studies have shown that nano-TiO2 can accelerate the early-age hydration of Portland
cement, improve compressive and flexural strengths, and enhance the abrasion
resistance of concrete. However, it was also found that aging due to carbonation
may result in loss in catalytic efficiency.

Fig: 5.3 mesericordia church in Rome

(Source: international academy of technology for construction 2005)

27
5.4.3 Nano-Fe203
Nano-Fe203 has been found to provide concrete with self-sensing capabilities as well
as to improve its compressive and flexural strengths. Nano-Al203 has been shown to
significantly increase the modulus of elasticity (up to 143% at a dosage of 5%) but to
have a limited effect on the compressive strength. (1 .5" ' cement articles" and nano
binder have been proposed as a way to improve cement performance while reducing
carbon emissions. Cement pastes made with nano sized cement particles have shown
faster setting times and an increase in early compressive strength compared to pastes
prepared with common. The concept of a nano binder involves mechano-chemical
activation that is obtained by inter-grinding cement with dry mineral additives in a
ball mill. Mechanic-chemical modification of cement with high volumes of blast
furnace slag has been shown to increase the compressive strength by up to 62%.

Figure: 5.4 nano Fe2O3

(Source: www.wikipedia.com)

5.4.4 Nano clay Particles

Nanoclay particles have shown promise in enhancing the mechanical performance,
the resistance to „chloride penetration, and the self-compacting properties of concrete
and in reducing permeability and shrinkage. Natural clay particles are micron and
sub-micron in size, and the base structure of clay is composed of crystalline layers of
aluminum phylosilicates with thicknesses on the order of 1 nm.

Figure: 5.5 nano clay particle

(Source: www.wikipedia.com)

28
5.5 APPLICATIONS
5.5.1 Applications in Steel Structures, Joint and Welds
Fatigue is a significant issue that can lead to the structural failure of steel subject to
cyclic loading, such as in bridges or towers. This can happen at stresses significantly
lower than the yield stress of the material and lead to a significant shortening of useful
life of the structure. The current design philosophy entails one or more of three
limiting measures. A design based on a dramatic reduction in the allowable stress, a
shortened allowable service life or the need for a regular inspection regime. This
has a significant impact on the lifecycle costs of structures and limits the effective use
of resources and it is therefore sustainability as well as a safety issue. Stress risers are
responsible for initiating cracks from which fatigue failure results and research has
shown that the addition of copper nano particles reduces the surface unevenness of
steel which then limits the number of, stress risers and hence fatigue cracking. efficient
materials use in construction prone to fatigue issues.

Although carbon nano tubes (CNT‟s) have tremendous properties of strength and
stiffness, they have found little application as an addition to steel as their
inherent slipperiness (due to their graphitic nature) makes them difficult to bind to
the bulk material and they pull out easily, rendering them ineffective. In addition,
the high temperatures involved in steel manufacture and the effects of this on CNT‟s
presents a challenge for their effective use as a composite component.

5.5.2 Nano composites

Two relatively new products that are available today are Sandwich Nanofiex
(produced 'by Sandwich Materials Technology) and MMFXZ steel (produced by
MMFX Steel Corp). Both are corrosion resistant nano-composite, but have different
mechanical properties and are the result of different applications of nanotechnology.

The modern construction requires steel of high strength and ductility. This has led to
the use of low strength ductile material in larger sizes than would otherwise be possible
with high strength brittle material and consequently it is an issue of sustainability and
efficient use of resources. Sandwich Nanofiex has both the desirable qualities of a high
Young‟s Modulus and high strength and it is also resistant to corrosion due to the
presence of very hard nanometer- sized particles in the steel matrix. It effectively
matches high strength with exceptional formability and currently it is being used in
29
the production of parts as diverse as medical instruments and bicycle components,
however, its applications are growing. The use of stainless steel reinforcement in
concrete structures has normally been limited to high risk environments as its use is
cost prohibitive. However, MMFX2 steel, while having the mechanical properties of
conventional steel, has a modified nano-structure that makes, it corrosion resistant and
it is an alternative to conventional stainless steel, but widely not accepted due to its
high cost.

5.5.3 Applications in Wood

Wood is also composed of nanotubes or “nano fibers namely, lignocelluloses‟ (woody
tissue) elements which are twice as strong as steellgHarv-esting these nanofibers would
lead to a new paradigm in sustainable construction as both the production and use
would be part of a renewable cycle. Lignocelluloses‟ at the nanoscale could open new
opportunities for such things „as self-sterilizing surfaces, internal self-repair and
electronic lignocelluloses‟ devices. ‟Due to its natural origins, wood is leading the
way in cross-disciplinary research and modeling techniques. Firstly, BASF have
developed a highly water repellent coating based on the actions of the lotus leaf as a
result of the incorporation of silica and alumina nano particles and hydrophobic
polymers. And, secondly, mechanical studies of bones have been adapted to model
wood, for instance in the drying processes the broader sense nanotechnology
represents a major opportunity for the wood industry to develop new products,
substantially reduce processing costs, and open new markets for bio-based
materials)

5.5.4 Applications in Coating

Coating is an area of significant research in nanotechnology. Much of the work
involves Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Dip, Meniscus, Spray and Plasma
Coating in order to produce a layer which is bound to the base material to produce a
surface of the desired protective or functional properties.

Nanotechnology is being applied to paints and insulating properties, produced by the

addition of nano-sized cells, pores and particles. This type of paint is used, at present,
for corrosion protection under insulation since it is hydrophobic and repels water from
the metal pipe and can also protect metal from salt water attack. Ti02 nano
particles are also being used in coating material. The Ti02 coating captures and breaks

30
down organic and inorganic air pollutants by a photo catalytic process (a coating of
7000m20f road in Milan gave a 60% reduction in nitrous oxides). TlO2 is used to coat
glazing because of its sterilizing and anti-fouling properties. The TiO2 will break down
and disintegrate organic dirt through powerful catalytic reaction. Furthermore, it is
hydrophilic, which allow the water to spread evenly over the surface and wash away
dirt previously broken down. Other special coatings also „have been developed, such
as anti-graffiti, thermal control, energy sawing, anti- reflection coating. This
research opens up the intriguing possibility of putting roads to good environmental use.
Another application is coating of glass materials. The current state of the art in
cladding is an active system which tracks sun, wind and rain in order to control the
building environment and contribute to sustainability, but this is unreliable and
difficult to calibrate and maintain. Consequently, there is a lot of research being
carried out on the application of nanotechnology to glass so as to improve its
properties. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is used in nano particle form to coat glazing. Glass
incorporating this self cleaning technology increases the efficiency of buildings. Fire-
protective glass is another application of nanotechnology. This is achieved by using a
clear in tumescent layer sandwiched between glass panels (an interlayer) formed of
fumed silica (Si02) nanoparticles which turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield
when heated. Most of glass in construction is, of course, on the exterior surface of
buildings and the control of light and heat entering through building glazing is a major
sustainability issue. Research into nano technological solutions are mainly done to
block light and heat coming in through windows. Firstly, thin film coatings are being
developed which are spectrally sensitive surface applications for window glass.
These have the potential to liter out unwanted infrared frequencies of light (which
heat up a room) and reduce the heat gain in building; however, these are effectively a
passive solution. As an active solution, thermo chromic technologies are being
studied which react to temperature and provide thermal Insulation to give
protection from heating whilst maintaining adequate lighting. A third strategy, that
produces a similar outcome by a different process, involves photo chromic
technologies which are being studied to react to changes in light intensity by
increasing absorption. And finally, electro chromic coatings are being developed that
react to changes in applied voltage by using a tun9sten oxide layer; thereby becoming
more opaque at the touch of a button All these applications are intended to reduce
energy use in cooling buildings and. Create a sustainable built environment.

31
5.5.5 Nanotechnology and Fire Protection
Fire resistance of steel structures is often provided by a coating produced y on
cementitious process. Current Portland cement based coatings are not popular to be
brittle and polymers additions are are because they need to improve adhesion.
However, research into nano-cement (made of nano-sized particles) has the potential to
create a new be used as a tough, durable, high temperature coating. This is achieved by
the mixing of carbon nanotubes with the cementious material to fabricate here
composites that can inherit some of the outstanding properties of the nanotubes
such as strength . Polypropylene fibers also are being considered as a method of
increasing fire resistance and this is a cheaper option than conventional insulation.

5.5.6 Nano sensors

Nano and micro electrical mechanical systems (MEMS) sensors have been develop and
used in construction to monitor and control the environment condition and the material
performance. When embedded into. Concrete, the sensor. System can provide crucial
information about the curing process of the cement paste through the sensed
temperature and internal humidity. The sensed temperature and internal humidity also
can be integrated into available maturity methods to predict the strength of young
concrete. Knowing the strength of concrete at early ages has great benefits such as an
increase in the productivity and acceleration-of the construction process through the
reduction of the formwork structure removal period, and an increase in the
productivity of prefabricated elements and rare- stressing concrete members. When a
concrete structure is in service, continuous monitoring of temperature and internal
humidity will provide information about the damage process of the concrete
structure due to environmental effects such as freeze/thaw cycles, chloride diffusion,
alkali-silica reaction, carbonation and dimensional changes caused by temperature
changes.

MEMS devices are being manufactured using the same material and processes as
microelectronic devices such as microprocessors and memory chips. There are several
advantages of a MEMS-based monitoring system over other methods of condition
assessment and monitorin QDMEMS devices can be embedded, bringing their
readings closer to the true in situ properties of the structure and not estimates based on
external visual inspections or expensive non-destructive tests. MEMS technology has

32
the potential to measure the properties of interest directly. Batch processes are used to
fabricate MEMS devices, introducing high quantity, low cost and ensuring good
coverage of a structure. Finally, MEMS devices are robust and bring improved ease
of use. Their small, encapsulated nature makes them difficult to damage while wireless
technologies make them easy to embed and interrogate. MEMS-based systems for
distributed infrastructure monitoring will have integratable technologies for
sensing, powering, wireless communication, device location, computation,
interrogation, storage, and data analysis for condition assessment. One advantage of
these sensors is their dimension. Nan sensor ranges from 1 nm10000 nm..

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF NANO CONCRETE

 Availability of sources for producing Nano materials is less
 For producing Nano materials there are no such equipment's to grain the materials
up to Nano scale size.
 Usage of Nano materials in concrete is difficult to replace the materials in
concrete like cement.
 Nano technology based construction products might be harmful to health.

ADVANTAGES OF NANO CONCRETE.

 Lower cost per building site.
 Concrete with high initial and final compressive and tensile strength.
 Concrete with good workability.
 Cessation of super plasticizing utilization.
 It imparted good overall performance of concrete.

Fig: 5.6 nano concrete

(Source: www.gharexpert.com)

33
5.6 FUTURE CHALLENGERS
5.6.1 Fabrication
Current efforts in the field of nanotechnology are focused on the fabrication,
characterization and use of these materials on a nano Scale domain.\This leads to
most ' of the developmental work focusing on very small quantities of material that Is
typically far removed from the type of quantities required for typical construction
infrastructure. One of the potential solutions, to this is to focus on the nano materials
to act as catalyses, thereby reducing the amount of nonmaterial‟s required
substantially. Another Viewpoint is that for many applications, the material does not
necessarily have to be used on a nano scale to obtain a major improvement in benefits.
This would be the case with reduction of the dimensions of cement, where a
substantial improvement in strength can already be obtained through the large scale
milling of the cement to a finer form than traditional form. Although the cement may
not be purely a nonmaterial as yet, the benefits obtained would already be substantial.

Figure: 5.6 fabrications

(Source: www.wikipedia.com)
5.6.2 Health
Nanotechnology based construction products might be harmful to health the use of
nanoparticles is very recent, it has already raised issues concerning its potential
toxicity): for example, the nano tubes might cause lung problems to the workers as
nano particles can cause symptoms. The effect related to the inhalation of Ti02
particles with a primary particle size between 2 and 5 nm, reporting lung
inflammation for a concentration of 8.8 mg/m3. These symptoms have been
confirmed and it is recommended that the use of nanoparticles should be made with the
same care already used in Universities for materials of unknown toxicity, i.e., by
using air extraction devices to prevent inhalation and gloves to prevent dermal
contact. The possibility of DNA damage resulting in later cancer development. The

34
nano toxicity risk depends on the nanoparticles type, concentration volume superficial
characteristics.

5.6.3 Environment
The effect of various nano materials on the natural environment is hotly debated in
nanotechnology and environmental research. Various ongoing investigations focus on
the uncertainty regarding the potentials effects of materials that can exist on the
nanoscale with properties that are different that When using the material on micro
or macro scale. Some works in this regard shows that the potential effects may be
minimal. As constructed infrastructure is provided in it .8 natural environments, all
materials used in the construction and maintenance of these facilities need to be
compatible to the natural environment and their effects on the natural environment
should not be negative. Typical potential problems in this regard include leaching of
minerals into ground water, release of minerals into airways through the generation
of dust and exposure to potentially harmful materials during construction and
maintenance operations. . The Environment Protection Agency has considered that
carbon nanotubes are a new form of carbon that must be treated under the toxic
products Act. More over it will create a new category of nano waste which has to be
extracted and treated. The nanotechnology becomes a double edge sword to the
construction industry. More research and practice efforts are needed with smart design
and planning, construction projects can be made sustainable and therefore save energy,
reduce resource usage, and avoid damages to the environment.

Figure: 5.7 environments

(Source: wwwcembureau.be.in)

35
5.6.4 Cost
The cost of most nanotechnology materials and equipment are relatively high. This is
due to the novelty of the technology and the complexity of the equipment used
for preparation and characterization of the materials. However, costs have been
shown to decrease over time and the expectations are that, as manufacturing
technologies improve, these costs may further decrease. Whether the expected
decrease will render the materials as run-of-the-mill construction engineering
materials will have to be seen, and depends largely on the benefits rendered through
the applications of these materials. Current option is that in special cases, the materials
will unable unique solutions to complicated problems that cause them to be cost
effective, "which will „lead to large scale application of these specific technologies. In
other cases the traditional methods for treating the problem may still remain the most
cost effective. It is a challenge for construction engineer to solve real world
transportation infrastructure problem and provide a facility to the general public atria
reasonable cost.

Figure: 5.8 cost

(Source: www.gvmt.bu.in)

36
 CHAPTER 6
BACTERIAL CONCRETE

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is considered as one of the most important building materials around the world
in the construction sector. While going through the study, it is noticed that the main
drawback of concrete is that it easily produce crack, due to its low tensile strength. It is
a well known fact the concrete structures are very susceptible to cracking which allows
chemicals and water to enter and degrade the concrete, reducing the performace of
structure and expensive maintenance in the form of repairs. Cracks in concrete occur
due to various mechanisms such as shrinkage, freeze-thaw reactions and mechanical
compressive and tensile forces. Cracks in concrete are inevitable and are one of the
inherent weaknesses of concrete. Water and other salts seep through these cracks,
corrosion initiates and thus reduces the life of concrete. So there was a need to develop
an inherent biomaterial, a self-repairing material which can remediate cracks and
fissures in concrete. Bacillus genus bacteria can be used as a solution to this problem.

6.2 MECHANISM
Repair of cracks in concrete structures usually involves applying a concrete mortar
which is bonded to the damaged surface. In this method the bacterial spores and calcium
lactate are added directly while making the concrete and mixed. When the concrete is
mixed with bacteria the bacteria go into a dormant state. When the cracks form, bacteria
very close to the crack precipitating calcite crystals. When a concrete structure is
damaged and water starts to seep through the cracks that appear in the concrete,
bacterial spores break and bacteria comes to life and feed on the calcium lactate and
limestone (CaCO3) is produced which fills the cracks. Bacillus bacteria are harmless to
human life hence it can be used effectively. Repairs can be particularly be time
consuming and expensive because it is often very difficult to gain access to the structure
to make repairs. Through this process, the bacterial cell is coated with a layer of calcium
carbonate. Microbial calcium carbonate precipitation in a cement mortar/concrete is a
complex mechanism.

37
6.3 ADVANTAGES

 Microbial concrete in crack remediation.

 Improvement in compressive strength of concrete.
 Reduction in permeability and water absorption of concrete.
 Reduction in corrosion of reinforced concrete.

6.4 DISADVANTAGES

 Cost of bacterial concrete is more.

 Growth of bacteria is not good in any conditions.
 Design of concrete mix with bacteria is not referred in IS codes.
 Study on calcite precipitation is high.

38
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

 The Light weight concrete is of low compressive strength; this cannot be used
for the construction of structural members such as beams, columns, etc. But this can
be effectively used in the construction of partition walls, windows, floor slabs, etc.
 The implementation of light weight concrete more in the structure leads to more
economy. Therefore we can conclude that, “To achieve the low cost construction,
first we have to implement Light weight Concrete”
 SCC with high workability, proper strength and adequate durability can be produced
using locally available materials. Attention must be paid to formwork, segregation
and shrinkage.
 Green concrete having reduced environmental impact with reduction of the concrete
industries CO2 emissions by 30%.
 Nanotechnology offer Green concrete consumes less energy and becomes
economical. So definitely use of concrete product like green concrete in future will
not only reduce the emission of CO2 in en This is called eco friendly and reduced
environmental impact by energy saving reducing CO2 emissions concrete made with
concrete waste and uses less energy in its production and produces less CO2 than
normal concrete
 The possibility of great advances whereas conventional approaches-at best, offer
only incremental improvements in the field of construction engineering.
 Nanotechnology is not exactly a new technology, rather it is an extrapolation of
current ones to a new scale and at that scale the conventional tools and rules no
longer
 There are three main issues that are preventing the widespread use of the
nanotechnology (1) Lack of vision to identify those aspects that could be changed
through its use, (2) Lack of skilled personnel and (3) Level of investment.
 The potential of nanotechnology to improve the performance of concrete and to
lead to the development of novel, sustainable, advanced cement based composites
with unique mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties is promising and many
new opportunities are expected to arise in the coming years.

39
 Current challenges teed to be solved before the full potential of nanotechnology
can be realized, in concrete applications including proper dispersion; compatibility
of the nano materials in cement; processing, manufacturing, safety, and handling
Issues scale-up and cost.

 The main disadvantage of all type of concrete is the formation of crack. Thus we
reach an innovation for self-healing of cracks in concrete by using special type of
bacteria especially from the genus bacillus

 Due to ecofriendly nature, self healing ability and durability, it is more

advantageous than conventional concrete. Cementation by bacteria is very easy and
convenient for usage.

40
 REFERENCE

Internet Reference
[1] www.google.com
[2] www.wikipedia.com
[3] www.studymafia.org
[4] www.researchgate.net
[5] www.theconstructor.org
[6] www.buildconstructions.in

Journals
[7] International Journal of “Applied Engineering Research”
ISS 0973-4562 Volume 3(2015)PP.7125-7132
[8] International journal of “Chem Tech Research” ISSN:0974-
4290 Volume 9,NO.02
[9] Bakharev,(2005)”durability of concrete materials in construction
industry”:cement and concrete research,35(6),1233-1246
[10] SUBRAMNIAN.S.CHATTOPADHYAY.D. Experiments
for mix-proportioning of self-compacting concrete “the
Indian Concrete Journal, Jan 2003”

Books
[11] M S Shetty, Concrete Technology by S CHAND Publisher.
[12] Mehta P K Concrete Structure,
[13] ROUBI A ZAIED applied concrete research
[14] Kamsiah.M.I(2003).study of lightweight concrete behavior

41