SALAHADDIN UNIVERSITY-ERBIL

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN AGGREGATES

DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN AGGREGATE
• Aggregates are major material used in making concrete. It comprises the largest
fraction of concrete.
• The natural rock and gravel sources of aggregates may contain components which
are potentially deleterious when the aggregate is used in concrete and mortar.
• Deleterious substances (DS) in general, are unwanted matter present that can possess
damaging effects.
• These deleterious materials may be distributed throughout the entire rock or deposit,
be confined to only a part of it.
• Aggregates for concrete, if containing DS, may affect strength, workability and long
term performance of concrete.
• These substances weaken the bond between cement paste and aggregates.
• A geological evaluation of the source combined with a thorough petrological
investigation and appropriate testing will minimize the risk of deleterious
materials being incorporated into the concrete or mortar.
• In addition to previous mentioned deleterious materials, other components
may find their way into an aggregate stockpile as contaminants (metal,
wood and plastic fragments introduced during the extraction and
processing of the aggregate or as chemical solutions (salts derived from
the capillary rise of saline ground waters into the base of aggregate
stockpiles) , ( salt spray or contamination from adjacent chemical storage
facilities). In some rare cases the processed aggregate degrades after it
has been processed either in the stockpile, or in the concrete made with it.
This indicates that the constituent minerals in the aggregate particles
themselves are unstable when exposed to air and water from the
atmosphere.
CATEGORIES OF DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN AGGREGATE

Deleterious
substances

Coatings (fine Weak or

Impurities particles) unsound
particles
Can interfere with hydration Found on the surface of aggregate. Particles that are unsound in
& setting process Can interfere with formation of themselves
a strong bond b/w cement paste &
aggregates
TYPES OF DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Organic impurities
• Aggregates by themselves may be strong enough yet to be used in making concrete
this is not sufficient.
• Aggregates containing organic impurities may not be satisfactory for making concrete.
These impurities may interfere with chemical reactions of hydration and prevent proper
setting so that the concrete becomes friable and has little strength.
• The organic substance found in aggregate is commonly products of decay of
vegetable matter (e.g. tannic acid - C76H52O46) and appears in the form of humus or
loamy organic matter.
• Organic matter are commonly found in fine aggregate (sand) rather than coarse
aggregate and can be washed away.
Organic impurities (cont.)
• ASTM C40-04 refers the colorimetric test to determine aggregate organic content.
• In some countries, the organic content is determined from loss of mass of a sample on
treating with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Not all organic matter is deleterious and the colorimeter test does not determine the
deleterious effects of the organic impurities only the quantity of organic matter.
Therefore, ASTM C87-05 recommends further testing i.e. strength test on mortar with
questionable aggregate compared to mortar with same washed aggregate.
• It is worth mentioning that in some cases, the influence of organic impurities may be only
temporary. In a prior investigation, it was observed that at 28 days equals strengths
were recorded between concrete made with clean sand and that made with sand
contaminated with organic matter.
Salt contamination
• Certain aggregates such as sand from seashore, sand and coarse aggregate dredged from sea
or riverbed and desert sand may contain salts.
• Salts can be in the form of soluble chlorides and sulphates (from NaCl & CaSO4).
• Also soluble salts of lead, zinc, cadmium and tin, can retard the setting of cement, and hence
affect the final strength and durability of concrete. However, problems are rarely encountered in
practice.
• Chloride causes corrosion of reinforcing steel and leads to rust forming on the surface of the steel.
The rust occupies a much greater volume than the original steel thus disrupting and cracking the
concrete as well as weakening the all-important concrete–steel bond and the steel itself.
• The upper limits for soluble chloride specified in BS 882 (1992) range from 0.01 percent to 0.05
per cent depending on the type of concrete. Problems with chloride contamination of aggregates
are rare in the UK since aggregates are usually washed, but in some climatic regions, notably the
Middle East, chloride contamination is not uncommon.
Salt contamination (cont.)
• Carefully measured amounts of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) are normally added to Portland
cement to control its setting characteristics, but additional amounts derived from the aggregate could
produce deleterious expansion and disruption of the concrete through internal sulphate attack.
• Further implication of salt in aggregate is that it will absorb moisture from air and cause efflorescence –
ugly white deposits on the surface of concrete.
• The salt can be removed by washing with fresh water. Sand with high quantities of salt need special care
though.

Interference with setting

• chemical contaminants (soluble chlorides and sulphates), organic compounds (mono- and polysaccharides,
humic acid and lignins), soluble salts of (lead, zinc, cadmium and tin) can retard the setting of cement, and
hence affect the final strength and durability of concrete. Even in low concentrations their effects are
noticeable and, in extreme cases, they can prevent the proper setting of the cement binder so that the
concrete is friable or crumbly and has little or no strength. In the case of some of these contaminants,
notably sulphates and chlorides, they remain a potential problem and threat to durability long after the
concrete has set.
• Chloride reduces the protection of reinforcing steel from corrosion
(passivation) and leads to rust forming on the surface of the steel. The rust
occupies a much greater volume than the original steel thus disrupting and
cracking the concrete as well as weakening the all important concrete–steel
bond and the steel itself.
Clay, silt, dust and other fine materials
• Clay may be present in aggregate in the form of surface coatings which interfere with the
bond between aggregate and the cement paste.
• There are two more types of fine material which can be present in aggregate: silt and
crusher dust. Silt and fine dust may form coatings similar to those of clay.
• Silt is material between 2 and 60 μm, reduced to this size by natural processes of
weathering; silt may thus be found in aggregate from natural deposits.
• Crusher dust is a fine material formed during the process of reduction of rock into crushed
stone or, less frequently, of gravel into crushed fine aggregate. This dust should be removed
by washing.
• Well-bonded coatings cannot be so removed but, if they are chemically stable and have no
deleterious effect, there is no objection to the use of aggregate with such a coating,
although shrinkage may be increased. However, aggregates with chemically reactive
coatings, even if physically stable, can lead to serious damage.
Clay, silt, dust and other fine materials (cont.)
• Silt and fine dust may be present in the form of loose particles not bonded to the coarse
aggregate. Even so, silt and fine dust should not be present in excess, due to their fineness
and therefore large surface area, silt and fine dust increase the amount of water needed
to wet all the particles in the mix.
• It is necessary to control the clay, silt and fine dust contents of aggregate.
• The clay, silt and fine dust content of fine aggregate can be determined by the
sedimentation method described in BS 812-103.2 : 1989 (2000).
• The clay, silt and dust coatings may reduce durability, strength and result in pop-outs in
concrete as a result of deterioration of cement paste-aggregate bond.
Alkali-Aggregate reaction
• Interaction between aggregate particles in a concrete or mortar and constituents
from the cement can lead to longer-term durability troubles (mainly cracking).
• The most common reaction is the alkali-silica reaction which involves aggregates
which contain silica or siliceous matter which can react with the alkali hydroxides
derived from the cement. In time, the reaction product which is an expansive gel,
can exert sufficient pressure to crack and disrupt the concrete.
• The gel formation on the surface of aggregate particles impairs the bond
between aggregates and cement paste due to expansive nature of the gel.
• Another kind of alkali-aggregate reaction is the alkali-carbonate reaction.
Similarly, a gel is formed which upon swelling can also cause expansion and
disruption of the concrete.
Modification to the strength and durability characteristics of a concrete

Although small amounts of dust are helpful in concrete, improving cohesiveness and
reducing bleeding, excessive amounts may cause the aggregate particles to become
coated with dust so that the necessary bonding between the particle and the cement
matrix is not fully established.

Interaction between aggregate particles in a concrete or mortar and constituents from

the cement binder can also lead to longer-term durability problems. The best known of
these are the alkali-aggregate reactions between certain types of siliceous or carbonate
aggregates and the alkalis normally derived from the cement.

The alkali silica reaction involves aggregates which are composed of (or contain) non-
crystalline or poorly crystalline silica or siliceous glass which can react with the alkali
hydroxides derived from the cement. In time, the reaction product which is an expansive
hydroscopic gel, can exert sufficient pressure to crack and disrupt the concrete.

Certain impure carbonate aggregates will also react with alkalis in the pore fluid
(referred to as the alkali carbonate reaction) and can also cause expansion and
disruption of the concrete.
The nature of the pore structure and pore size distribution, particularly the
microporosity, appears to be more critical than the overall porosity of the
aggregate in relation to its resistance to freeze–thaw in concrete, so that each
aggregate source needs to be assessed individually. Some flints which occur in
southern England have a white microporous flint outer layer or cortex which may be
present as discrete particles or surface coatings in an aggregate and these can
cause spalling and pop-outs from concrete surfaces under freeze–thaw conditions
Unsound particles
• Unsound particles, present either as natural components in the aggregate or as contaminant
particles from an irrelevant source. They can produce problems when incorporated into
concrete (surface disfigurement and reduction in the compressive strength or durability).
• Tests on aggregate sometimes reveal that the majority of the particles are satisfactory but
that a few are unsound. The quantity of such particles must be limited. If present in quantities
(over 2-5 % of the mass of the aggregate), these particles may adversely affect the strength
of concrete.
• There are two main types of unsound particles: those that fail to maintain their integrity, and
those that lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or even on exposure to water.
• Shale, other particles of low density are regarded as unsound, so are inclusions such as clay
lumps, wood, coal, lignite, chert, flint, chalk, mica, gypsum and iron pyrites (iron disulphide) as
they lead to pitting and scaling.
Unsound particles (cont.)
• Coal can swell, causing disruption of concrete and, in large quantities, can disturb the process of
hydration of the cement paste. However, particles of hard coal amounting to no more than ¼ % of
the mass of the aggregate have no negative effect on the strength of concrete.
• free mica in fine aggregate, even in a few percent of the mass of the aggregate, affects adversely
the water requirement and the strength of concrete. Fookes and Revie found that a 5 % content by
mass of mica in sand reduced the 28-day f’c of the resulting concrete by about 15 %, even when the
w/c ratio was kept constant. The reason is probably poor adhesion of the cement paste to the surface
of mica particles. In the presence of active chemical agents produced during the hydration of cement,
alteration of mica to other forms can occur (biotite and muscovite).
• One of the commonest unsound particle contaminants familiar in the gravel aggregates of southern
Britain is pyrite (iron disulphide). This mineral can oxidize to brown iron hydroxides in normal
environmental weathering conditions if close to the surface of a concrete.
• Gypsum and iron pyrite are mainly responsible for expansion of concrete.
• Some Cornish tin mining wastes contain pyrite crystals, or ‘mundic’ particles, (mundic is the old
Cornish word for pyrite). This material is used as low-grade aggregate for the production of
concrete blocks and the pyrite does contribute to the deterioration of concrete, although
moisture movement in the clay and the secondary micas which are present in the slaty and
phyllitic waste is also involved.
• Aggregate particles partly composed of clay and certain geologically weathered rocks tend
to be moisture sensitive, that is, they have the capacity to absorb or lose water from their
structure depending on the environmental conditions. This produces a consequent expansion or
shrinkage of the particle leading to the breakdown of the aggregate/cement bond so that
the concrete becomes susceptible to damage by frost and thermal cycling.
• Chalk particles present in some gravel aggregate sources as shown in figure can also reduce
the quality of a concrete. Chalk aggregate particles, like clay lumps and other soft materials,
are weak and can reduce the compressive strength and durability of the concrete. However, a
fraction of the chalk appears to be broken up and becomes involved in the hydration and
setting of the cement matrix with uncertain consequences. Thus only a proportion of the
original chalk particles remain as true aggregate, nevertheless a small percentage of chalk in
the aggregate is sufficient to reduce the strength of a concrete significantly.
• Varying amounts of coal and lignite particles are found in some gravel
aggregates and also in some mine wastes. They tend to form weak and
porous particles in the aggregate, and may also form unsightly tarry stains on
concrete surfaces, or be the cause of surface pitting.
• Many sea-dredged and some land-based gravel resources contain carbonate
shell fragments. Although these fragments are usually mechanically strong
complete shells may be hollow and other fragments flaky, may reduce the
workability of a concrete mix and hollow shells may reduce the strength of the
concrete. However, unless the proportion of shell in the aggregate is very high
the effects of shell on the workability and strength of concrete are minimal.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF DELETERIOUS
SUBSTANCES AND RESULTING FAILURES
Organic loam

Colorimeter
test

Chloride-induced
corrosion of
reinforcement

pop outs
 Sulfate attack

Thaumacite
Formation (sulfate
Attack)

efflorescence
Fine aggregate (sand) containing impurities

ASR illustration
Disruption due to ASR

ACR outcome
Mundic decay as seen from petrographic thin section An example of degraded “mundic” block
 Examples of flint and chalk (extreme right)
staining due to a pyrite aggregate particles showing the white
particle present near the microporous outer layer on the flints (partly
surface of a concrete. broken away on the particle second from left).
THE END