FLOW IN PIPES

AND
CLOSED CONDUITS

https://financialtribune.com/sites/default/files/field/image/17january/05_iraq_170_3.jpg
https://phys.org/news/2018-03-software-solution-pressure-networks.html https://sciencing.com/calculate-water-flow-through-pipe-based-pressure-
2685.html

A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit

through which liquids or gases flow.
In hydraulics, pipes are commonly understood
to be of conduits of circular cross section
which flow full.
Conduits flowing partially are considered to be
open channels. https://sciencing.com/calculate-critical-velocity-8440253.html
 Osborne Reynolds
(1842–1912)
- an Irish mathematician and physicist best known for
introducing the Reynolds number classifying fluid flow.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Osborne-Reynolds-tank-today-The-University-of-Manchester_fig2_234151184
https://www.essom.com/product/details/13/37
 Reynolds Experiment (Real Fluids

Observation 1 Observation 3
Reynolds Number Reynolds Number
<2000 2000 - 4000

Flow Classification Flow Classification

Laminar Transitional/
Turbulent

Observation 2 Observation 4
Reynolds Number Reynolds Number
2000 - 4000 >4000

Flow Classification Flow Classification

Transitional Turbulent

https://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-building/LECTURE/dams%20and%20water/first_class/Lect.No.8-pdf.pdf
Reynolds Experiment (Real fluids)
Three distinct patterns of flow were revealed:
Laminar (Re < 2000) – in which the fluid may be
considered to flow in discrete layers with no
mixing.
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of
individual particles do not cross or intersect.
Transitional (2000 < Re < 4000) – in which some
degree of unsteadiness becomes apparent (the
wavy filament). https://cmcrisensors.wordpress.com/2019/04/26/wireless-pressure-
detection-of-water-supply-pipe-network/

Turbulent (Re > 4000) – in which the flow

incorporates an eddying or mixing action.
 Reynolds Number

V ( 4R )
Re =
ν https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/93589/looking-for-a-
common-term-for-non-circular-pipe

For all conduits

A
R=
where:
Re = Reynolds number https://physics.aps.org/articles/v8/94
PW
V = mean velocity where:
R = hydraulic radius R = hydraulic radius
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid A = cross-sectional area of flow
PW = wetted perimeter
Sample computation of R

2 cm

4 cm
Conduit

Cross section of conduit

(Full flowing)

A = (2cm)(4cm) = 8cm2
PW = 2cm + 2cm + 4cm + 4cm = 12cm

A 8cm2
R= = = 0.67cm
PW 12cm
Sample computation of R

2 cm
0.75 cm

4 cm
Conduit

Cross section of conduit

(Partiall-Full flowing)

A = (0.75cm)(4cm) = 3cm2
PW = 0.75cm + 0.75cm + 4cm = 5.5cm

A 3cm2
R= = = 0.54cm
PW 5.5cm
 Reynolds Number

Vdρ Vd
Re = =
μ ν https://www.bluefrogplumbing.com/about-
us/blog/2020/04/types-of-pipes-different-materials-of-your-
pipes-and-what-they-mean/
For pipes
where:
Re = Reynolds number
V = mean velocity
d = diameter of pipe
 = mass density of fluid
= absolute viscosity
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
Laminar Flow

Transitional Flow

Turbulent Flow
https://www.bronkhorst.com/int/blog-1/what-is-the-difference-between-laminar-flow-and-turbulent-flow/
 Critical Velocity

This is the velocity below which all turbulences is damped

out by the viscosity of the fluid. It is found that the upper
limit flow of practical interest is represented by a Reynolds
Number of about 2000.
The velocity at which the change from laminar to turbulent
flow occur was found to be higher than that which caused
the change from turbulent to laminar flow.
Reynolds called these velocities respectively the higher and
the lower critical velocities.
 Problem 1
A fluid at 20C flows at 700 cm3/s through an 8-cm-diameter
pipe. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent if
the fluid is
(a) hydrogen ( = 1.08 x 10-4 m2/s) Vdρ Vd
(b) gasoline (( = 4.06 x 10-7 m2/s) Re = =
μ ν
(c) air ( = 1.51 x 10-5 m2/s)
(d) water ( = 1.02 x 10-6 m2/s)
(e) mercury ( = 1.15 x 10-7 m2/s)
(f) glycerin ( = 1.18 x 10-3 m2/s
 Problem 2
Water ( = 1.02 x 10-6 m2/s) flows at 700 cm3/s. Determine
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent if the diameter is
(a) 10 cm
(b) 50 cm Vdρ Vd
Re = =
μ ν
 Shearing Stress at a Pipe Wall

fρV 2  γh L   ΔP   P1 − P2 
τO = = r =  r =  r
https://kiasuplumber.com/choosing-the-right-pipe-materials/
8  2L   2L   2L 
where:
O = shearing stress at pipe wall (N/m2, lb/ft2, lb/in2)
f =dimensionless frictional factor
ρ = mass density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
V = velocity of flow (m/s, ft/s)
 = unit weight of the fluid (kN/m3, lb/ft3)
hL = head loss in the pipe (m, ft)
r = radius of pipe (m, ft)
L = length of pipe (m, ft)
P = (P1 – P2) = change in pressure between two points in
the pipe (Pa, kPa, psf, psi)
 Shear Velocity (Friction Velocity)

τo f
V* = =V
ρ 8
https://kiasuplumber.com/choosing-the-right-pipe-materials/

where:
V* = friction velocity (shear velocity), (m/s, ft/s)
O = shearing stress at pipe wall (N/m2, lb/ft2, lb/in2)
f =dimensionless frictional factor
ρ = mass density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
V = velocity of flow (m/s, ft/s)
 Shear Stress Distribution & Velocity Distribution

Shear Stress Distribution Velocity Distribution Pipe Cross-Section

at a Cross-Section at a Cross-Section
(Linear) (Parabolic)
 Problem 3
If the shear stress at the wall of a 12”-diameter pipe is 1 psf
and f = 0.040, what is the average velocity if a fluid with
specific gravity of 0.70 is flowing?
 Problem 4
What pipe size will maintain a shear stress at the wall of
0.624 psf when water flows through 300 ft of pipe causing a
lost head of 20 ft?
 Evaluation of Head Loss

DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA Where:

Henry Darcy (1803–1858)
Julius Weisbach (1806–1871)
hL = head loss
f = frictonal factor
  L = length of pipe
2
L V
hL = f   V = velocity of flow
 d  2g
d = diameter of the pipe

DarcyWeisbach
g = gravitational constant
 Friction Factor

64
f= For laminar flow
Re

Where:
f = frictonal factor
Re = Reynolds number
https://drahmednagib.com/fluid_mechanics_2_2017/REE-307-Lec.3.pdf
 Head Loss for Laminar Flow

HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION Where:

Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen(1797–1884)
Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille(1799–1869)
hL = head loss
 = absolute viscosity of the fluid
L  V 32 νLV
μLV 2
64 32
f= h L = f  2 = L = length of pipe
Re γ
 
dd 2 g gd 2
V = velocity of flow
DW  = unit weight of the fluid

HagenPoiseuille
d = diameter of the pipe
 = kinematic viscosity
g = gravitational constant
 Minor Head Loss (Local Head Loss)

V2
hm = K
2g
Where:
hm = head loss https://www.refiningandpetrochemicalsme.com/article-
17289-air-liquide-arabia-opens-regions-first-hydrogen-pipeline-

https://www.comsol.com/blogs/improving-your-meshing-with-
K = a constant for a fitting network

swept-meshes/
V = velocity of flow
g = gravitational constant

https://www.circleofblue.org/2011/world/mixing-art-and-
technology-north-americas-largest-membrane-filtration-
http://www.gdwelded.com/guide-for-valve-selection-and-operation-of- sewage-plant-opens-near-seattle/attachment/pipes-and-
water-supply-network.html puddles-655/
https://edl.pumps.org/fluid-flow-iii/fr-loss-water.html
 Minor Head Loss (Local Head Loss)

Gradual Expansion loss

Entrance Loss

Sudden Expansion loss Gradual Contraction loss

Exit Loss
Sudden Contraction loss
 Velocity of Flow

HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA Where:

Allen Hazen(1869–1930)
Gardner Stewart Williams (1866-1931)
(fps units) V = 1.318CR 0.63S0.54
(SI units) V = 0.8492CR 0.63S0.54
V = velocity of flow (ft/s, m/s)
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (ft, m)
S = slope of the energy grade line;
unit head

HazenWilliams
 TYPE OF PIPE MATERIAL Hazen-Williams “C”
Extremely smooth, fibrous cement 140
New or smooth cast iron; concrete 130
Newly welded steel 120
Average cast iron; newly riveted steel;
110
vitrified clay
Cast iron or riveted steel after some
95 – 100
years of use

C
Deteriorated old pipes 60 – 80
 Velocity of Flow

MANNING’S FORMULA Where:

Robert Manning (1816-1897) V = velocity of flow (ft/s, m/s)
2 1 n = Manning’s coefficient
(fps units) V =
1.486 3 2
R = hydraulic radius (ft, s)
R S
n S = slope of the the energy grade
1 2 3 12 line; unit head loss
(SI units) V = R S

Manning
n
 Manning,s “n”
NATURE OF SURFACE
Min Max
Neat cement surface 0.010 0.013
Wood-stave pipe 0.010 0.013
Plank flumes, planed 0.010 0.014
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.017

n
Metal flumes, smooth 0.011 0.015
Concrete, precast 0.011 0.013
Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015
Plank flumes, unplaned 0.011 0.015
Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017
Concrete, monolithic 0.012 0.016
Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017
Cast iron - new 0.013 0.017
Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.020
Riveted steel 0.017 0.020
Corrugated metal pipe 0.021 0.025
Canals and ditches, smooth earth 0.017 0.025
Metal flumes, corrugated 0.022 0.030
Canals:
Dredged in earth, smooth 0.025 0.033
In rock cuts, smooth 0.025 0.035
Rough beds and weeds on sides 0.025 0.040
Rock cuts, jagged and irregular 0.035 0.045
Natural streams:
Smoothest 0.025 0.033
Roughest 0.045 0.060
Very weedy 0.075 0.150
 PIPE SYSTEMS

http://tradearabia.com/news/CONS_287495.html

https://www.steeljrv.com/what-is-a-piping-system.html#What_Is_A_Piping_System

https://www.comsol.com/blogs/improving-your-meshing-with-swept-meshes/
Pipes in Series

Parallel Pipes

Pipe Network

Branching Pipes
(Reservoir Problems)
Answers to Sample Problems

Problem No. Answer

1(a) 103.156 (L)
1(b) 27440.5074 (T)
1(c) 737.8844 (L)
1(d) 10922.398 (T)
1(e) 96876.9219 (T)
1(f) 9.8414 (L)
2(a) 9737.9184 (T)
2(b) 1747.5837 (L)
3 12.1357 ft/s
4 d = 0.6 ft = 7.2 in.
FLOW IN PIPES
AND
CLOSED CONDUITS
https://financialtribune.com/sites/default/files/field/image/17january/05_iraq_170_3.jpg
 Pipes in Series
Pipes are in series if they are connected Pipes are in parallels if they are
end to end so that a fluid flows in a connected in such a way that flow
continuous line without any branching. branches into two or more separate
The volume rate of flow through pipes pipes and then comes together again
Parallel Pipes downstream. The total flow entering
in series is constant throughout.
each joint must equal the total flow
leaving that joint. The head loss
between two joints is the same for
Branching pipes consist of one or more each branch connecting these joints.
pipes that separate into two or more
pipes (or combine to a single one) and
do not come together again
downstream.
Branching Pipes Pipe Network
(Reservoir Problems)
 Problem 1 (Equivalent Pipe)
Given a 4000-m-long, 100-mm-diameter concrete pipe, determine the
diameter of a 1000-m-long equivalent pipe. Use D-W Formula.
Pipe
Properties
Pipe A Pipe B (EP)
Length (m) 4000 1000
Diameter (mm) 100 ?
Material Concrete Concrete

A pipe is equivalent to another one or to a piping system when, for a given head loss, the
same flow rate is produced in the equivalent pipe as occurred in the original.
OR
QA = QB h L ( A ) = h L ( B)
A pipe is equivalent (to another pipe or to a piping system) when, for a specific flow rate,
the same head loss is produced in the equivalent pipe as occurred in the original.
 Problem 1 (Equivalent Pipe)
Given a 4000-m-long, 100-mm-diameter concrete pipe, determine the
diameter of a 1000-m-long equivalent pipe. Use D-W Formula.
Properties
Pipe h L ( A ) = h L ( B)
Pipe A Pipe B (EP)
Length (m) 4000 1000   L  V2    L  V2 
Diameter (mm)  f  d  2g  =  f  d  2g 
   A   
100 ?
Material Concrete Concrete
B
QA = QB 
 L A  d VB
2

2 2
L B VB
π 2 π 2   B
2
=
d A VA = d B VB  d A   (100)  dB
4 4
2
 4000   d  1000
2
d 2B VB d 2B VB
VA = 2 =   B
2
=
dA (100) 2  100   (100)  dB
d B = 76 mm
 Problem 2 (Equivalent Pipe)
For a lost head of 5 ft/1000 ft, and using C = 100 for all pipes, how
many 8-in.-diameter pipes are equivalent to a 16-in.-diameter pipe?

hL(1-2)
EGL

1 2

V = 1.318CR 0.63S0.54
L
 Problem 2 (Equivalent Pipe)
For a lost head of 5 ft/1000 ft, and using C = 100 for all pipes, how
many 8-in.-diameter pipes are equivalent to a 16-in.-diameter pipe?
nQ8" = Q16" 5 ft
h L (16") = h L (8") = =S
1000 ft
V = 1.318CR S 0.63 0.54

C8" = C16" = 100 Q8" = A 8"V8"

 8" 
π 2
( 0.63 0.54 
Q8" =  d 1.318CR S  )
  4  8"
d 4
R 8" = = ft Q16" = A16"V16"
4 12"
 16" 
 
Q16"
π 2
( 0.63 0.54 
=  d 1.318CR S  )
d  4  4 16"
R 16" = = ft
4 12" Solve n = ?
 Problem 3 (Equivalent Pipe)
Convert the piping system shown below to an equivalent length of 6-in. pipe.
The values of factors K are:
Pipe
Properties
K A B 2
Fitting V
hm = K
for each fitting
Length (ft) 150 100
Strainer, B 8.0
Diameter (in) 12 6 2g
12” bends, C, F 0.5
Material (f) 0.025 0.02
12” tee, D 0.7
12” valve E 1.0
12” x 6” cross, G [x (V/2g]6” 0.7
6” meter, H 6.0
Bends, J, K 0.5
6” valve, L 3.0
From pipe to tank M [x (V/2g]6” 1.0
 Problem 3 (Equivalent Pipe)
Major losses: (due to friction) Minor losses: (due to fittings)
LV V2
2
hL = f   hm = K
 d  2g 2g
 150 ft  V122 V122
h L (12 ) = 0.025 
 2g h m (12 ) = 8 + (2 x 0.50 ) + 0.7 + 1.0
 1 ft  2g
V 2 V122
h L (12 ) = 3.75 12 h m (12 ) = 10.7
2g 2g
V62
 100 ft  V62 h m (6) = 0.70 + 0.6 + (2 x 0.50 ) + 3.0 + 1.0
h L(6) = 0.02 
 2g
2g
 0 . 5 ft  V62
2
h m (6) = 11.7
V 2g
h L(6) =4 6
2g
 Problem 3 (Equivalent Pipe)
Total head losses V62
hL(T) = 16.6031
hL(T) = hL(12) + hL(6) + hm(12) + hm(6) 2g

2
V12 V62 2
V12 V62 Equivalent pipe (6”)
hL(T) = 3.75 + 4 + 10.7 + 11.7
2g 2g 2g 2g
L V62
2
V12 V62 hL(6) =f f = 0.020
hL(T) = 14.45 + 15.7 d 2g
2g 2g
L V62 V62
Continuity Equation 0.020 = 16.6031
0.5 ft 2g 2g
Q12 = Q6
L = 415.0781 ft
A12 V12 = A6 V6
π π
12 V12 = 6 2 V6
2
V12 = 0.25 V6
4 4
 Problem 4 (Pipes in Series)
A 225-m-long, 300-mm-diameter concrete pipe and a 400-m-long,
500-mm-diameter concrete pipe are in series. Find the diameter of a
625-m-long equivalent pipe. Use D-W formula.

d2 = 500 mm
d1 = 300 mm
Original pipe

L1 = 225 m L2 = 400 m

de = ?
Equivalent pipe

625 m
 Problem 4 (Pipes in Series)

h(L1)

h(T)
h(L2)

L1 = 225 m L2 = 400 m

h L ( T ) = h L (1) + h L ( 2 )
h L (1) + h L ( 2 ) = h e
h L(T ) = h e
 Problem 4 (Pipes in Series)
h L (1) + h L ( 2 ) = h e Properties
Pipe
1 2 e

  L  V2    L  V2    L  V2  Length (m) 225 400 625

 f  d  2g  +  f  d  2g  =  f  d  2g  Diameter (mm) 300 500 ?

   1    2    e
V1 = 11.1111 (d e ) Ve
2
 225  2  400  2  625  2
 V1 +  V2 =  Ve
 0 .3   0 .5   de  V2 = 14 (d e ) Ve
2

Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q 2 = Q e
π π π
(0.3) V1 = (0.5) V2 = (d e )2 Ve
2 2

4 4 4
(0.3)2 V1 = (0.5)2 V2 = (d e )2 Ve
 Problem 4 (Pipes in Series)
 225   400   625  2
 11.1111 (d e ) Ve  14 (d e ) Ve
2 2
 + = Ve
2 2

 0 .3   0 .5   de 
d e = 0.343 m = 343 mm
 Problem 5 (Pipes in Series)
Water from a large reservoir flows through a pipeline, 1.8 km long and discharges
into service tank. The first 600 m of pipe is 300 mm in diameter and the remainder
is 150 mm in diameter. Calculate the discharge when the difference in water level
between the two reservoirs is 25 m and f = 0.04 for both pipes.

h(L1)

25 m
h(L2)
 Problem 6 (Pipes in Series)
Given is a three-pipe series system. The total pressure drop is PA - PB = 150,000 Pa,
and the elevation drop is ZA – ZB = 5 m. The pipe data are
Pipe
Properties
1 2 3
Length (m) 100 150 80
Diameter (cm) 8 6 4
f 0.0288 0.0260 0.0314

The fluid is water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the flow rate Q in m3/h through the
system.
 Problem 5 (Pipes in Series)

h(L1)

PA h(L2)

HGL h(L3)

ZA PB

ZB
Datum
A B
 Problem 7 (Parallel Pipes)
Assume that the same three pipes in Problem 6 are now in parallel with the same
total head loss Compute the total flow rate Q, neglecting minor losses.
Pipe
Properties
1 2 3
Length (m) 150 80 100
Diameter (cm) 6 4 8
f 0.0260 0.0314 0.0288

Q1 1 Q1

Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Q2 2 Q2
Q Q
A B

Q3 3 Q3
 SAMPLE OF PARALLEL PIPES

Q2

1 3 B 5 6
Q1
A Q3 C Q6
Q5

Q4

Pipes 3 & 4 are parallel

 Problem 7 (Parallel Pipes)
Assume that the same three pipes in Problem 6 are now in parallel with the same
total head loss Compute the total flow rate Q, neglecting minor losses.
Pipe
Properties
1 2 3
Length (m) 150 80 100
Diameter (cm) 6 4 8
f 0.0260 0.0314 0.0288

Q1 1 Q1

Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Q2 2 Q2
Q Q
A B

Q3 3 Q3
 Problem 7 (Parallel Pipes)

piezometer h

1
A
Q 2 Q
B
3

h L (1) = h L ( 2 ) = h L (3)
 Problem 7 (Parallel Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
1 2 3
Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Length (m) 150 80 100
hL(1) = hL(2) = hL(3) = hL(Prob 6)
Diameter (cm) 6 4 8
f 0.0260 0.0314 0.0288 150 V12
hL(1) = 0.0260
0.06 2g
80 V22
hL(2) = 0.0314
0.04 2g
100 V32
hL(3) = 0.0288
0.08 2g

Solve for V and Q in each pipe then solve for QT

 Problem 8 (Parallel Pipes)
Determine the total discharge and the individual flows in the four parallel pipes
shown. The hydraulic grade line difference between A and B is HA - HB = 60 m. The
following data apply:
Pipe
Properties
1 2 3 4
L (m) 1000 650 500 750
D(mm) 1000 850 750 1000 1
f 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.03
K 3 1 0 2
2
A B
Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 3

h L (1) = h L ( 2 ) = h L (3) = h L ( 4 )
4
 Problem 9 (Parallel Pipes)
A pipe system connects two reservoirs whose difference in elevation is 15 m. The
pipe system consists of 300 m of 60-cm concrete pipe (Pipe 1), branching into 600
m of 30-cm (Pipe 2) and 45-cm (Pipe 3) in parallel, which join again to a single 60-
cm line 1500 m long (Pipe 4). What would be the flow in each pipe? For all pipes,
assume f = 0.030.

h(L1)

hL(2) = hL(3)
hL(T) = (elev)
2
1 hL(4)

3
FLOW IN PIPES
AND
CLOSED CONDUITS
https://financialtribune.com/sites/default/files/field/image/17january/05_iraq_170_3.jpg
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
How much water must the pump supply when the flow through the 900-mm
pipe is 1.40 m3/s, and what is the pressure head at A?
Pipe
Properties Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe
El 25 m piezometer
1 2 3 4 B
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200
D (mm) 500 400 600 900 D’
El 12 m
C
C 120 120 130 110
Q (cms) 1.40 1
2

4
E
3 D
common joint El 6.5 m
Q P
El 0 m
A
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200 D’
D (mm) 500 400 600 900
C 120 120 130 110
h(L4)
Q (cms) 1.40
V (m/s) 2.2007
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225
4
D
hL (m) 11.0229 El 6.5 m E
0.54
Q4  hL 
V4 = 0.8492C 4 R 4  
0.63
V4 =
A4  L
1
V4 = 0.8492C 4 R 4  
0.63 0.54
S4 V4 0.54
h L =  
0.63 
L4
 0.8492C 4 R 4 
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4 El 17.5229 m
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200 D’
D (mm) 500 400 600 900
C 120 120 130 110
h(L4)
Q (cms) 1.40
V (m/s) 2.2007
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225
4
D
hL (m) 11.0229 El 6.5 m E

El D' = El E + h L ( 4 ) = 17.5229 m
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties El 25 m
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4 B h(L1)
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200
D’ El 17.5229 m
D (mm) 500 400 600 900
C 120 120 130 110
1
Q (cms) 0.2794 1.40
V (m/s) 1.4230 2.2007 Q1
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225
hL (m) 7.4771 11.0229 D

h L (1) = 25 − El D'
0.54
 h L (1) 
V1 = 0.8492C1R 1
0.63
 
 L1 
Q1 = A1V1
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200 El 17.5229 m
D (mm) 500 400 600 900 D’ h(L2)
El 12 m
C 120 120 130 110 C
Q (cms) 0.2794 0.1642 1.40
V (m/s) 1.4230 1.3068 2.2007 2
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225
hL (m) 7.4771 5.5229 11.0229
D

h L ( 2 ) = El D'−El C
0.54
 h L( 2) 
V2 = 0.8492C 2 R 2
0.63
 
 L2 
Q 2 = A 2 V2
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
El 25 m
B
El 17.5229 m
D’
El 12 m
C
1
Q1 2

4
3 D
El 6.5 m E
Q P Q3
El 0 m

Q1 + Q 3 = Q 2 + Q 4
A
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200
D (mm) 500 400 600 900
h(L3)
C 120 120 130 110
Q (cms) 0.2794 0.1642 1.2848 1.40
V (m/s) 1.4230 1.3068 4.5441 2.2007 PA
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225 γ El 17.5229 m D’

hL (m) 7.4771 5.5229 11.0229

Q1 + Q 3 = Q 2 + Q 4
Q 3 = Q 2 + Q 4 − Q1
3 D

Q3 Q3
V3 = Q P
El 0 m
A3 A
 Problem 10 (Branching Pipes)
Pipe
Properties
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3 Pipe 4
L (m) 1800 1200 2000 2200
D (mm) 500 400 600 900
h(L3)
C 120 120 130 110
Q (cms) 0.2794 0.1642 1.2848 1.40
V (m/s) 1.4230 1.3068 4.5441 2.2007 PA
R (m) 0.125 0.1 0.15 0.225 γ El 17.5229 m D’

hL (m) 7.4771 5.5229 49.7171 11.0229

1
 V3  0.54
h L ( 3) =  
0.63 
L3
 0.8492C3 R 3  3 D
PA
= El D'+ h L ( 3) = 67.24 m Q Q3
γ P
El 0 m
A
FLOW IN PIPES
AND
CLOSED CONDUITS
https://financialtribune.com/sites/default/files/field/image/17january/05_iraq_170_3.jpg
 Pipes in Series
Pipes are in series if they are connected Pipes are in parallels if they are
end to end so that a fluid flows in a connected in such a way that flow
continuous line without any branching. branches into two or more separate
The volume rate of flow through pipes pipes and then comes together again
Parallel Pipes downstream. The total flow entering
in series is constant throughout.
each joint must equal the total flow
leaving that joint. The head loss
between two joints is the same for
Branching pipes consist of one or more each branch connecting these joints.
pipes that separate into two or more
pipes (or combine to a single one) and
do not come together again
downstream.
Branching Pipes Pipe Network
(Reservoir Problems)
Pipe Network
 Pipe Network
0.5 Pipe
A 1000 m, 500 mm B
0.1 Inflow or outflow
Node; joint

1200 m, 600 mm

1200 m, 400 mm
1000 m, 500 mm Length and diameter
Loop 1 Loop number
Loop 1
PIPE NETWORK
- Consists of a number of E 1000 m, 300 mm D 1000 m, 400 mm C
0.05
pipe elements, one or more
pumps, and perhaps several 0.1

1200 m, 300 mm
1200 m, 400 mm

1200 m, 300 mm
reservoirs
Loop 2 Loop 3

F 1000 m, 400 mm G 1000 m, 300 mm H

0.1 0.05 0.1

 Problem 11 (Pipe Network)
0.5 Pipe
A 1000 m, 500 mm B
0.1 Inflow or outflow
Node; joint

1200 m, 600 mm

1200 m, 400 mm
1000 m, 500 mm Length and diameter
Loop 1 Loop number
Loop 1
Determine the flow
distribution in the pipe
network using Hardy-Cross E 1000 m, 300 mm D 1000 m, 400 mm C
0.05
Method.
0.1

1200 m, 300 mm
1200 m, 400 mm

1200 m, 300 mm
Use C = 120 for all pipes
Loop 2 Loop 3

F 1000 m, 400 mm G 1000 m, 300 mm H

0.1 0.05 0.1

 Hardy Cross (Pipe Network)
0.5
A B
1) Assume flow for each individual pipe in the network. The 0.1
total flow entering each joint must equal the flow leaving 0.3
that joint.
0.2 0.2
2) Using the assumed flow rate for each pipe, calculate the Loop 1
head loss through each pipe.
0.1
3) Find the algebraic sum of the head losses in each loop in E D C
0.05
the pipe network. Clockwise flows in a loop may be
considered positive, producing positive head losses; 0.1 0.1
counter clockwise ones are then negative and produce 0.1 0.1 0.05
negative head losses. The algebraic sum of the head
Loop 2 Loop 3
losses in each loop must equal zero in order for the flow
rates within pipes in the loop to be correct. Hence if the
computed head loss sum for every loop in the network is 0.05
zero, the initially assumed flow rates are correct and the F 0 G H
problem is solved.
0.1 0.05 0.1
 Hardy Cross (Pipe Network)
0.5
A B
0.1
4) However, the probability of initially guessing all flow rates
correctly is virtually zero. Hence, the next step is to 0.3
compute a flow rate correction for each loop in the network
using the equation 0.2 0.2
Loop 1
Δ=−
h L

h 
n  L
 0.1
Q 0 
E D C
0.05
Where: 0.1 0.1
 = flow rate correction for a loop 0.1 0.1 0.05
hL = algebraic sum of head losses for all pipes in the loop Loop 2 Loop 3
n = a value that depends on which formula is being used
to compute flow rates.
(n = 1.85 for Hazen-Williams Formula, and n = 2 for Darcy- 0
0.05
F G H
Weisbach Formula and Manning Formula)
(hL/Q0) = summation of head loss divided by flow rate for
each pipe in the loop 0.1 0.05 0.1
 Hardy Cross (Pipe Network)
0.5
A B
0.1
0.3
5) The final step is to use the flow rate corrections (one in
each loop) to adjust the initially assumed flow rates for all 0.2 0.2
pipes and then repeat the entire process for the adjusted Loop 1
flow rates.
0.1
6) The procedure is repeated until all corrections (values of ) E D C
become zero or negligible. 0.05
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1 0.05
Loop 2 Loop 3

0.05
F 0 G H

0.1 0.05 0.1

 Hardy Cross (Pipe Network)
0.5
A 1000 m, 500 mm B
0.1
0.3
1200 m, 600 mm
Do this in

1200 m, 400 mm
0.2 0.2
Loop 1
Excel
0.1
E 1000 m, 300 mm D 1000 m, 400 mm C
0.05
0.1 1200 m, 300 mm
0.1
1200 m, 400 mm

1200 m, 300 mm
0.1 0.1 0.0.5
Loop 2 Loop 3

0.05
0
F 1000 m, 400 mm G 1000 m, 300 mm H

0.1 0.05 0.1

 Hardy Cross (Pipe Network)
0.5
A B
0.1
0.28353

NEW
0.21647 0.18353
(ASSUMED) Qs
0.07522 0.11822
E D C
0.05
0.1

0.14125 0.04053 0.06822

0.04125 0.03178
F G H

0.1 0.05 0.1

WATER
HAMMER
Definition &
Causes of
Water Hammer
 It is a pressure surge or wave caused
when a fluid in motion is forced to stop
or change direction suddenly
(momentum change).

 A water hammer commonly occurs when

a valve closes suddenly at an end of
a pipeline system, and a pressure wave
propagates in the pipe.

 It is also called hydraulic shock.

A

C
https://www.popularmechanics.com/home/a13953892/water-hammer-basics-engineering/
 https://capitalplumbing.com.au/blog/what-exactly-causes-water-hammer/

https://www.bobvila.com/articles/water-hammer-arresters/

http://www.wermac.org/materials/painting.html
(p/)

p/
Check valve slam (due to sudden deceleration, a check valve may
slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic characteristic of the
check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve and
tank)
When a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion
is forced to stop or change direction suddenly
When a domestic water tap is turned off quickly
Pump failure
Effects of
Water Hammer
https://www.weuvcare.com/water-hammer-a-look-at-the-cause-and-effect/

https://www.dft-valves.com/applications/water-hammer/
Prevention of
Water Hammer
▪ Close control valves slowly
▪ Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by
fitting a regulator.
▪ Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing
charts for some applications recommend flow velocity at or
below 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/s)
▪ Fit slowly closing valves. Toilet fill valves are available in a quiet
fill type that closes quietly.
▪ High pipeline pressure rating (expensive).
▪ Good pipeline control (start-up and shut-down procedures).
▪ Water towers (used in many drinking water systems) help
maintain steady flow rates and trap large pressure fluctuations.
 Nikolay Zhukovsky

Nicholai Joukowsky
(Moscow, Russia 1847 – 1921)

Magnitude of
Water Hammer
Instantaneous Closure
t C = 0 sec ond

ΔP = ρcV
Where:
P = magnitude of water hammer pressure
ρ = mass density of the fluid
c = celerity of pressure wave
tC = time of closure of valve
V = velocity of flow
Rapid Closure
2L
tC 
c
ΔP = ρcV
Where:
P = magnitude of water hammer pressure
ρ = mass density of the fluid
c = celerity of pressure wave
tC = time of closure of valve
V = velocity of flow
2L/c = critical time of closure
L = length of the pipe
Slow Closure
2LVρ
2L
tC 
c
ΔP =
tC
Where:
P = magnitude of water hammer pressure
ρ = mass density of the fluid
c = celerity of pressure wave
tC = time of closure of valve
V = velocity of flow
2L/c = critical time of closure
L = length of the pipe
 Celerity of Pressure Wave
(Rigid Pipes)
RIGID PIPES "Rigid pipes" are sufficiently strong (both within
the pipe wall and joints) to withstand most anticipated live and
dead loads. A pipe's ability to resist imposed loads is
improved by "better" embedment conditions.
https://cms.esi.info/Media/documents/4434_1311758806648.pdf

Rigid pipes include reinforced non-cylinder concrete, reinforced

concrete cylinder, prestressed concrete cylinder, vitrified clay,
polymer concrete, cast iron, asbestos cement and cast-in-place
pipes.
https://trenchlesstechnology.com/rigid-and-flexible-pipes/
Celerity of Pressure Wave
(Rigid Pipes) EB
c=
ρ

Where:
c = celerity of pressure wave
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
ρ = mass density of the fluid
 Celerity of Pressure Wave
(Non-Rigid Pipes)
FLEXIBLE PIPES "Flexible pipes" rely upon their deformation
of the pipe from imposed loads to mobilize the support of
embedment materials on both sides of the pipe. Their primary
structural function is distributing the imposed vertical loads to
the surrounding soil. Some standards define a flexible pipe as
one that can deflect more than 2% without cracking.
https://cms.esi.info/Media/documents/4434_1311758806648.pdf

Flexible pipes include steel, ductile iron, thermoplastics such as

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
thermosetting plastics such as fiberglass-reinforced polymer
(FRP), bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe, and corrugated steel
pipes.
https://trenchlesstechnology.com/rigid-and-flexible-pipes/
Celerity of Pressure Wave
(Non-Rigid Pipes) EB
c=
 E Bd 
ρ 1 + 
 EPt 
Where:
c = celerity of pressure wave
ρ = mass density of the fluid
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
EP = modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall
t = thickness of the pipe wall
d = internal diameter of the pipe
Sample
Problems
 PROBLEM 1
A rigid pipe from a reservoir is 3000 ft long and water is flowing through it
with a velocity of 4 ft/s. If the initial pressure at the downstream end is
40 psig, what maximum pressure will develop at the downstream end
when a rapid-acting valve at the end is closed in 1 second? EB = 320,000
lbf/in2 and  = 1.94 slugs/ft3.

ΔP = ρcV lb  144 in 2

320000 2 
in  ft 2 
 ft
EB c= = 4873.6616
c= lb − s 2
s
ρ 1.94
ft − ft 3
2L
tC 
c 2L 2(3000 ft )
= = 1.2311 s
c ft
4873.6616
s
 PROBLEM 1
A rigid pipe from a reservoir is 3000 ft long and water is flowing through it
with a velocity of 4 ft/s. If the initial pressure at the downstream end is
40 psig, what maximum pressure will develop at the downstream end
when a rapid-acting valve at the end is closed in 1 second? EB = 320,000
lbf/in2 and  = 1.94 slugs/ft3.
lb − s  2
ft  ft 
ΔP = ρcV ΔP = 1.94 3 
4873.6616  4 
ft − ft  s  s 
lb lb
ΔP = 37819.6140 2 = 262.6362 2
ft in
lb lb
PDS = 40 2 + 262.6362 2 = 302.6362 psi
in in
 PROBLEM 2
(a) Assuming a 24-in. steel pipe to be rigid, what pressure occurs when a
flow of 20 cfs of oil (SG = 0.85) and EB = 250,000 psi, is stopped
suddenly?
(b) If the pipeline is 8000 ft long, how much time should be allowed for
closing a valve to avoid water hammer?

ΔP = ρcV lb  144 in 
 2

250000 2

in  ft 2 
EB c=  = 4672.4098
ft
c=  lb − s 
2 s
ρ 0.851.94 
3 
 ft − ft 
 PROBLEM 2
(a) Assuming a 24-in. steel pipe to be rigid, what pressure occurs when a
flow of 20 cfs of oil (SG = 0.85) and EB = 250,000 psi, is stopped
suddenly?
(b) If the pipeline is 8000 ft long, how much time should be allowed for
closing a valve to avoid water hammer?

ΔP = ρcV  ft 3

 lb − s 2
 ft  20 
ΔP = 0.851.94 4672.4098  s 
3 
 ft − ft  s  π (2 ft )2 
4 

ΔP = 49050.3038 psf = 340.6271 psi

 PROBLEM 2
(a) Assuming a 24-in. steel pipe to be rigid, what pressure occurs when a
flow of 20 cfs of oil (SG = 0.85) and EB = 250,000 psi, is stopped
suddenly?
(b) If the pipeline is 8000 ft long, how much time should be allowed for
closing a valve to avoid water hammer?
2L 2L 2(8000 ft )
tC  = = 3.4244 s
c c ft
4672.4098
s
2LVρ
ΔP =  
tC  20 
2(8000 ) (0.85  1.94 )
 π (2 )2 
ΔP = 4 
3.4244
 PROBLEM 2
(a) Assuming a 24-in. steel pipe to be rigid, what pressure occurs when a
flow of 20 cfs of oil (SG = 0.85) and EB = 250,000 psi, is stopped
suddenly?
(b) If the pipeline is 8000 ft long, how much time should be allowed for
closing a valve to avoid water hammer?

tC 
2L ΔP = 49049.6907 psf = 340.6229 psi
c
2L 2(8000 ft )
2LVρ = = 3.4244 s
ΔP = c
4672.4098
ft
tC s

2L
tC 
c
 PROBLEM 3
If a 24-in. steel pipe 8000 ft long is designed for a stress of 15,000 psi
under a maximum static head of 1085 ft of water, how much will the stress
in the walls of the pipe increase when a quick-closing valve stops a flow of
30 cfs? EB = 300,000 psi, EP = 30 x 106 psi.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS
Longitudinal axis

pd
σC =
2t
 PROBLEM 3
If a 24-in. steel pipe 8000 ft long is designed for a stress of 15,000 psi
under a maximum static head of 1085 ft of water, how much will the stress
in the walls of the pipe increase when a quick-closing valve stops a flow of
30 cfs? EB = 300,000 psi, EP = 30 x 106 psi.

ΔP = ρcV pd γhd
σ= =
2t 2t
EB
c=
62.4 3 (1085 ft ) (2 ft )
 E Bd  lb 1
ρ 1 + 
 EPt  lb ft 12
15000 2 =
in 2t
pd
σ=
2t t = 0.3761 in
 PROBLEM 3
If a 24-in. steel pipe 8000 ft long is designed for a stress of 15,000 psi
under a maximum static head of 1085 ft of water, how much will the stress
in the walls of the pipe increase when a quick-closing valve stops a flow of
30 cfs? EB = 300,000 psi, EP = 30 x 106 psi.

ΔP = ρcV t = 0.3761 in

c=
EB 
lb  144 in 2

300000 2 
 E Bd  in  ft 2 
ρ 1 +  ft
 EPt  c= = 3686.9485

1.941 +
(300000  24 ) 

s

σ=
pd  (6
)
30  10 (0.3761)  
2t
 PROBLEM 3
If a 24-in. steel pipe 8000 ft long is designed for a stress of 15,000 psi
under a maximum static head of 1085 ft of water, how much will the stress
in the walls of the pipe increase when a quick-closing valve stops a flow of
30 cfs? EB = 300,000 psi, EP = 30 x 106 psi.

ΔP = ρcV ft
c = 3686.9485
s
 ft 3 
 30 
 ft  s   144
ΔP = 1.94 3686.9485 
 s  π
4 (2 ft )2 

 
ΔP = 474.30 psi
Thank You!