Module-12

DESIGN FLOOD ESTIMATION

(Deterministic approach)
Dr. B.S. MATHUR
Professor
Department of Hydrology
I.I.T. Roorkee

General Aspects
The design flood computations are completed in the following two steps.
(i) Computation of Design Unit Hydrograph.
(ii) Convolution (i.e. application) of design rainfall excess function on to unit
hydrograph to compute the design flood.
Both these steps are discussed in details in the following sections.
A unit hydrograph is a conceptual tool which is used to compute the total runoff hydrograph
at a point where the flows originating from the catchment pass and it is known as the outlet.
Therefore, it is necessary to have a look on the composition of runoff.
For all practical purposes the total runoff comprising the river flow may be considered to
have the following two components.
(i) Base flow
(ii) Direct runoff or simply the runoff.
The base flow is defined as the sustained dry weather flow which continues in the
river irrespective of rains. It is generally constituted of the following two components.
(i) The snowmelt: This is contributed by the melting snow from parts of the basin
under permanent snow cover.
(ii) The contribution of groundwater to river system.
The large rivers having snow bound areas may receive considerable percentage of
flows as the snowmelt in their upper reaches but in lower reaches of the river the base flow
is mainly constituted by the contribution of ground water.
The direct runoff (or simply the runoff) is that part of precipitation which runs over the
land surface, joins the tributaries and ultimately forms the flows of main river and may cause
floods.

THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY

It was first introduced by L.K. Sherman in the year 1932 and till today it remains one of the
simplest and most powerful tools in surface hydrology.
A unit hydrograph is defined as a characteristic hydrograph of a catchment generated
by a uniformly distributed rainfall excess of a unit depth over a unit duration.
The various terms used in the above definition are explained below :
i) Characteristic hydrograph
A unit hydrograph is always a unique hydrograph i.e. its base, peak ordinate and time
lag or time to peak would always be same irrespective of other physiographic and
meteorologic conditions of the basin.
ii) Uniformly distributed rainfall excess
The rainfall excess must be uniformly distributed in space and time over the entire
basin.
iii) Unit depth
In India, commonly the unit depth is assumed to be 1 cm (or 1 inch).
iv) Unit duration :
A unit hydrograph for a catchment is characterized (or named) by its unit duration:
e.g. 1-hour UH, 12-hr. UH or 1-day unit hydrograph etc. It is the time, during which the unit
depth of rainfall excess uniformly generates over the entire basin.
Notations - Commonly the unit hydrograph ordinate are denoted by the notation U(∆t, t)
where ∆t = unit duration and t- is instant at which value of the ordinate is given.
Unit volume- Area under the unit hydrograph is called the ‘unit volume’. It corresponds to
unit depth of rainfall excess over the catchment.
Unit volume = 1cm * catchment area … (1)
The intensity of rainfall excess is thus given
By Unit depth/Unit duration = 1/∆t cm/hr. .. (2)

Limitation of UH Theory :
(i) It is difficult to have a uniform rainfall excess distribution in space and time over
the entire basin over the unit duration. Thus, the theory may not be valid for very
large basins.
(ii) Theory is valid and applicable to normal shaped basins.
(iii) It is a linear theory and principles of superposition and homogeneity hold good.

DERIVATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH FROM THE OBSERVED RAINFALL – RUNOFF

RECORDS OF AN ISOLATED STORM.
Isolated storms produce single peaked hydrograph at the outlet. Unit hydrograph for
such a storm event is derived in two steps :
(i) Analysis of storm hydrograph.
(ii) Analysis of storm rainfall.
i) Analysis of storm hydrograph
Out of many storm hydrographs available at the outlet, the severe most single
peaked hydrograph is selected for the derivation of unit hydrograph.
Step I – As shown in Figure -1, in most hydrographs, the rising point A, is quite distinct and
well defined and is therefore, easy to mark. However, for locating the end point B on the
recession curve any of the standard procedures can be adopted. In between the two points a
suitable time distribution of base flow is adopted. In the absence at any other reliable
data/information about base flow distribution, it is better to assume a linear relationship and
accordingly a straight line AB is drawn. This way the two main components i.e. ‘direct the
runoff’ (i.e. above the line AB), and ‘base flow’ (i.e. below the line AB) are separated out.
Step II – Area under the direct runoff hydrograph is computed which gives the volume of
runoff volume (v).
Step III – The runoff depth, d, is computed by dividing the volume of runoff by the area of the
catchment.
d = v/A .. (3)
Step IV – Corresponding to unit depth of the unit hydrograph (i.e. 1 cm), the ordinates of the
runoff hydrograph are linearly interpolated to obtain the unit hydrograph ordinates. The unit
hydrograph ordinates are plotted on a graph. The next step is to work out the ‘unit duration’
of this unit hydrograph by analyzing the storm rainfall data.
ii) Analysis of Rainfall
The objective is to compute the ‘rainfall excess’ i.e. component of total rainfall that
contributes to direct runoff. There, from the unit depth of unit hydrograph is estimated. It
involves the following steps.
Step I – From the point rainfall data of different rain gauges in the basin, the average
hyetograph of the storm is constructed.

Step II – If infiltration capacity curve is available the same is super imposed on it. However,
if the same is not available a suitable value of φ-index is so obtained that total rain above the
φ-index, is the same as the runoff depth (d) [Equation-3]. The rainfall depth above the φ-line
is called the ‘rainfall excess’.
The ‘duration’ of ‘rainfall excess’ is the first estimation of the unit duration of the Unit
Hydrograph. As a thumb rule the unit duration of a unit hydrograph need be 1/3 to 1/5 of
‘time to peak’ of the unit hydrograph.
UNIT HYDROGRAPH FOR UNGAGED CATCHMENTS
A unit hydrograph for ungaged catchment is derived by correlating the unit hydrograph
parameters with the catchment physiography and is known as a synthetic unit Hydrography
the following steps are involved
(a) Location of stations on toposheet and relevant information.
(b) Physio graphic Analysis
A brief description of these is as follows
Location of Stations & Relevant Information

On the traced map carefully mark the location of the following stations to be used
later in analysis.

(i) The Location of outlet: The “outlet” of the drainage area will decide the
boundariy of the catchment which is called as the “water divide”. Thus, the
water divide separates one drainage area from the other drainage area(s) and
forms the catchment for the outlet marked earlier.

(ii) Location of raingauges : On the catchment plan, the locations of the

“recording” and “non-recording” rain gauges inside as well as around the
catchment area are marked (if available).

(iii) Channel network : The channel network originating from near the
boundaries of the catchment right upto the outlet is traced. The main drainage
channel may be marked thicker than the other tributaries forming the network.

(iv) Blind catchments : Those areas within the catchment which do not
contribute to the channel network and may be contributing to a local
pond/lake/tank need be hatched. These are known as blind catchments.

(v) The catchment area : It is the area within water divide such that the runoff
generated from it passes through a single outlet located on the main stream.
It should be measured with the help of a plannimeter very carefully. The scale
 of the map should be sketched on the map of and not written numerically [e.g.
1 cm = 0.5 km]. The area within the water divide must be computed in square
kms keeping in view the scale of the map.

(vi) The contours and spot levels: From the toposheet, the contours need be
transferred onto the map at a reasonable contour interval. There should not
be too many contours to create confusions not too less so desired slope value
becomes vague. Also, If spot levels are available for the catchment, the same
may be transferred onto the traced map.

Physiographic Analysis :

The physiographic information collected above is further analysed to compute the

following data needed for the hydrologic analysis.

(i) Drainage area (km2) : The drainage basin area is computed by subtracting
the area of the blind basin from the total catchment area. If there is no blind
basin within the catchment, the catchment area will be the drainage area.

(ii) Length of longest channel (km) : The longest channel which normally
originates in near vicinity of the water divide is measured with the help of a
non-stretchable thread from the outlet upto its origin near the water divide. In
accordance with the scale of the map its value is converted into km. It is
generally denoted by (L).

(iii) The Centre of gravity (Cg) of catchment : The shape of the traced map is
marked and cut out on a card board. From different points on its boundary, a
thread attached to a weight, is hung by keeping the board in vertical position.
The line of thread is marked on the board. All such lines pass through the
centre of gravity the board and its position is marked and later transferred on
to the traced map.

(iv) Length upto Cg of catchment (km) : Mark a point on the main channel
opposite the centre of gravity of the catchment. As discussed above, measure
the length of the channel from the outlet upto this point following the course of
the river. According to the scale of the map, convert it in km. it is usually
[]
denoted by L .

(v) Relief of channel : This is the difference in elevations (meters) between the
highest point of main channel and the outlet.

(vi) Slope of main channel (Sc) : It is ratio between the relief of the main
channel and the length of the main channel and it is expressed in m/m.

(vii) Slope of the catchment (So) : A rectangular grid is marked on the

catchment plan. Each grid is assigned a weighted elevation. Relief is obtained
between the grid points and the outlet. For each relief, the flow of water along
the water course is established and its length is measured. The slope of each
grid is computed. The catchment slope (So) will be average of grid slopes.

(viii) Soil type and soil cover : Each project must have a report about the general
geology of the catchment area with a special reference to topographic
features regarding the soil type and the soil cover i.e. whether the catchment
landscape is bare soil, light grass, thin forest, thick forest, agricultural area,
 semi-urban or urbanized. This is necessary to assign a suitable value to over
land roughness for development of a model subsequently.

DERIVATION OF A SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH

For the derivation of a synthetic unit hydrograph, the unit hydrograph parameters [i.e.
peak ordinate (Qp), lag or time to peak (tp) and unit duration ( ∆t ) are related to catchment
physiography [i.e. catchment drainage area (A), length of longest channel (L), length from
outlet to c.g. of catchment ( L ), and slopes of channel]. In U.S.A. for the Applation Mountain
Region in California, Snyder suggested some equations as follows.

The Snyder’s Equation

Snyder (1938) proposed the following relationships for unit hydrograph parameters.

(i) Time lag (hr) tp = Ct (L L )0.3

(ii) Rainfall excess duration i.e. unit duration of UH, td = tp/5.5
(iii) Peak discharge Qp (m3/s) = 2.78.Cp.A/tp
(Area A is in Km2)
(iv) Time base of U.H. (tb)(hr) = (72+3 tp)

The coefficients Ct and Cp have been defined for regions of U.S.A. For Indian
catchments or rivers the values may be taken from published research. Subsequently,
Linsley proposed the following modification.

(Lag) : tp = C(L L / s )n

Where, n = 0.38, C = 1.72 for mountainous region, 1.0 for foot hill and 0.50 for valley, S-is
the general slope of the basin [i.e. so as given in section 2.11].

Knowing the UH parameters i.e. time lag (or time to peak) tp, peak discharge Qp and
the time base tb, a smooth curve can be drawn consisting of unit volume {i.e. 1 cm, drainage
area (A) }. The unit duration of UH will be, td.

Derivation of Design Unit Hydrograph

The unit hydrographs derived from the historical records (or synthetically) of a basin for the
isolated events may be of different unit durations. It is desirable that they should be
converted to the same unit duration. The selection of a unit duration depends upon the
experience. The flow characteristics of river and the available rainfall data (i.e. its nature)
have to be kept in mind. The unit duration of the unit hydrograph is preferably adopted as 1/3
to 1/5 of time to peak of severe hydrographs. In case of large basins, the duration is usually
adopted as 3-hours (or its multiples). All the unit hydrographs of different unit durations are
converted to this adopted unit duration. Theoretically, all unit hydrographs of the same unit
duration for a particular catchment must be identical. But in practice they do differ.
Differences in them are mainly attributed to non-fulfillment of all the basic assumptions on
which the unit hydrograph theory is based. First step towards the derivation of Design Unit
Hydrograph is to compute an Average (or Master) Unit Hydrograph for the ‘adopted unit
duration’.
Average (or Master) Unit Hydrograph
The three characteristic parameters of a unit hydrograph are the following.
(i) Base of U.H.
(ii) Peak of U.H.
(iii) Lag of U.H. or time to peak of UH.
These parameters of the computed unit hydrograph of the same unit duration may
differ considerably. In order to compute the average U.H. the following procedure is adopted.
(i) Arithmetic averages of the ‘time bases’, ‘peak ordinates’, ‘time-lags’ and ‘time to
peaks’ are worked out for all the unit hydrographs of the same unit duration.
(ii) On a graph paper X and Y axis are drawn and the origin of the two axes is taken
as rising point of the ‘average unit hydrograph’.
(iii) On the abscissa, from the rising point, the average time base is marked. It will
thus locate the end point of the average unit hydrograph.
(iv) A line parallel to abscissa is drawn at the level of ‘average peak ordinate’ value.
The peak is located by marking the ‘average time to peak’ on this line from the
ordinate.
(v) A smooth curve is drawn passing through the rising point, the crest (peak) point
and the end point in such a way that the shape of the curve very much resembles
with most of the derived unit hydrographs and it contains a ‘unit volume’ (=1 cm x
catchment area).
(vi) The ‘rainfall excess intensity’ function of the unit hydrograph is marked on the
same ordinate (y-axis). Accuracy is cross checked by the ‘average time lag’
computed earlier.
Having derived the ‘average unit hydrograph’, now the ‘Design Unit Hydrograph’ can
be computed.

The Design Unit Hydrograph

In accordance with the recommended procedure of Central Water Commission for
computing the design unit hydrograph, the peak ordinate of the computed average unit
hydrograph is be increased by 25 percent to 50 percent of its magnitude. This ‘increase’ is
adjusted from the rest of the ordinates of the unit hydrograph in such a way that the volume
under the new curve strictly remains ‘unit volume’ and shape of adopted curve remains in
conformity with the shape of ‘average unit hydrograph’. This adopted curve is the ‘Design
Unit Hydrograph’ for the catchment. The suggested increase in the peak ordinate of the
master unit hydrograph accounts for the severity of conditions which get smoothened or
subdued due to averaging of parameters {Fig. 3}.

Use of ‘Average’ and ‘Design’ Unit Hydrograph

The routine flood computations are carried out by convoluting the ‘rainfall excess’ of
storms onto the average unit hydrograph. The ‘design unit hydrograph’ is used to compute
the ‘design flood’, using the ‘critical sequences of the rainfall excess function’. The critical
rain sequences are convoluted on to the design unit hydrograph to compute the design
flood.

Computation of Design Flood Unit ‘Critical Rain Sequences’ and the ‘Design Unit
Hydrograph’.
The design flood estimates are needed for design of hydraulic structures like dams
etc. For computing the design flood, the requirements for data are as follows:
(i) Data of the severe-most storm ever recorded on the basin (or data of such a
storm from the nearby basin for storm transposition).
 (ii) Data pertaining to loss from rainfall [φ-index].
(iii) Design Unit Hydrograph for the basin.
(iv) Base flow estimates.
Firstly, the rainfall data is analysed to arrive at the ‘critical rainfall sequences’ for
design flood computations.

The Critical Sequence of the Design Rainfall

For this purpose, the severe-most storm ‘ever recorded’ on the catchment
responsible for the highest flood ever recorded is taken up for analysis. If data of the same is
not available, the data of a transposed severe-most storm is used for the purpose. For a
reliable estimates data of recording rain gauges (automatic type) are required.
Following steps are involved in this analysis.
(i) The point rainfall data of the storm under consideration is used to compute its
average hyetograph which is the plot of rainfall intensity vs time in the form of a
histogram. The time step for it is kept equal to the ‘unit duration’ of the design unit
hydrograph’.
(ii) The loss index (φ-index) is applied to this rainfall hyetograph. The recommended
‘initial loss’ is applied to the first time step of rainfall. For the rest of the duration of
storm, the average φ-index is applied. This way the rainfall excess hyetograph is
computed.
(iii) For arriving at the critical sequences, the following steps are involves :
(a) The ordinates of the design unit hydrograph are written in a column.
(b) The highest rainfall excess is written against the peak ordinate of the design
unit hydrograph. The second highest rainfall excess ordinate is written against
the second highest ordinate of the unit hydrograph which is next to the peak
ordinate and so on. If all the ordinates of unit hydrographs are not covered by
the rainfall excesses zeros are put against them.
(c) The column of the rainfall excess sequence so generated in step (b) above is
reversed i.e. the last value of the rainfall excess is put as the first, the ‘last but
one’ is written at the place of the second, and so on.
This arrangement of the rainfall excesses is called the ‘critical sequences’. In order to
compute the design flood these critical sequences of rainfall are now convoluted upon the
‘design unit hydrograph’.

Convolution of ‘Critical Rainfall & Sequences’ onto ‘Design Unit Hydrograph’ to

Compute the Design Flood.
For each of the blocks of hyetograph of critical sequences, the depth of rainfall
excess (i.e. d1, d2, d3 …. cm) cm is worked out. As shown in the table, corresponding to each
depth of rainfall excess (dj) its direct runoff hydrograph is computed and written in columns
(3), (4) …. by given suitable lags keeping in view the starting time of the rainfall excess (dj)
(At the ‘Starting time’ of the rainfall excess the zero of its DRH is placed). The total direct
runoff is obtained by summing the rows. The base flows are added to the total DRH to obtain
the total ‘design flood’. The area under the design flood hydrograph gives the total design
flood volume.
Computation Table for Design Flood Computations.

Sl.No. ∆t-hour Direct Runoff Hydrograph Ordinates for Total DRG

Design U-H Rainfall Excess (dj) (Σ)
(m3/s) d1 d2 d3 ……….
0 0 0 0
∆t U1 d1U1 0 d1U1
2∆t U2 d1U2 d2U1 0 d1U2 x d2V1
3∆t U3 d1U3 d2U1 d3U1 d1U3+d2U2+d1U1
4∆t U4 .. … d3U2 ….
… …. … … d3U3 …
… …. … … 0 …
… …. … … … …