Chapter 2 – Precipitation

EAT 363/3

Hydrology and Water Resources

Engineering EAT 363/3
Class of Dr. Afizah Ayob
 OUTCOME NO. 2

Able to solve the calculation of hydrology

and water resources engineering problems.
 OBJECTIVES:
• To introduce the pathways of precipitation
falling on the land surface of earth, includes the
water balance, simple hydrologic analysis,
hydrologic loses and hydrologic measurement.
• To introduce various methods used for data
analysis of rainfall
• To analysis the data using method of:
(i) Mean Areal Rainfall
(ii) Thiessen Polygon
(iii) Isohyetal
(iv) Arithmetic

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 Precipitation
• P: water (solid, liquid) falling from atmosphere to ground
• P includes Rain, Drizzle, Snow, Hail, Sleet, Ice crystals
• Magnitude of rain is varies depend on time and location.
Conditions:
1. Humid air cooled to dew-point T
2. Nuclei
3. Droplets to raindrops
4. Size of raindrops
• Adiabatic expansion due to pressure change

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 Formation of Precipitation
(different topographies)
Conditions to generate vertical air motion:
1. Convective: due intense heating of air at
the ground lead to expansion & vertical
rise of air
2. Cyclonic: movement of large air-mass
system as – warm or cold fronts
3. Orographic: due to mechanical lifting of
moist air masses over the windward side
of mountain ranges

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The three different precipitation lifting mechanisms that
result when air at different temperatures meet in different
topographies.

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 Precipitation measurement

1. Container to collect P in a storm event

2. Radar, digital recorders
(Accuracy depends on physical setting, disturbances…etc)
3. Weather data available from government
agencies – example: MET

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 Example of gages used for measuring precipitation.

Tipping bucket. The

An-8 in standard rain gage
(US). The collection funnel
inside directs the rain to a
plastic measurement tube.
bucket is calibrated to
tip after 0.01 in. of
rainfall and is recorded
by a data system.
8
 8 in (20.32 cm)

• Standard Rain

30 in (76.2 cm)
Gage (SRG)
Accuracy?

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 The watershed
• Watershed or basin area is an important physiographic
property that determines the volume of runoff to be
expected from a given rainfall that falls over the area.
• Often characterized by one main channel and by
tributaries that drain into a main channel at one or more
confluence points.
• Larger watersheds can have many subareas that
contribute runoff to a single outlet.
• Difference in shape and area affects timing and peak flow
of runoff to the out let, also reflects the volume of water
that can be generated from rainfall refer Fig. 4.
• In general, the large the watershed area, the greater the
surface runoff rate, the greater the overland flow rate, and
the streamflow rate.
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Timah Tasoh Lake
• Formulas developed to relate flow to watershed area take the form,
Qp = cAn
Where; Qp = peakflow, A = watershed area, c and n are regression
constant

• Major factors that determine the watershed response to a given rainfall:

(i) Drainage area
(ii) Channel slope
(iii) Soil type
(iv) Land Use
(v) Land cover
(vi) Main channel and tributary characteristics-channel morphology
(vii) The shape, slope and character of the floodplain

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 Concentrated
shape

Elongated shape

Typical watershed area shapes. The

differences in shape affects timing and peak
flow of RO (from rainfall) to the outlet.

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 Water relief
• The elevation difference between two reference points
within a watershed.
• Maximum relief = highest point of the watershed divide
- the watershed outlet
• Longitudinal profile of channel is a plot of elevation vs
horizontal distance and is an indicator of channel
gradient.
• Example: river show decrease in channel gradient as
one proceeds in a downstream direction

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 Runoff coefficient
• Defined as the ratio R/P for any watershed.
• Unit: inches or mm
- Represent a volume of water when multiplied by the surface area of the
watershed.
- If a water body receives inflow for a period of time, the change in water
depth due to inflow can be calculated.
- TWO major ways of denoting the volume of water that is added;
(i) Flow rate for specified time
(ii) Water depth across an area
Volume = flow rate x time = depth x watershed area
Rearrange:
Depth = flow rate x time x conversion factor (if necessary)
watershed water

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 EXAMPLE 2-1
The following are the recorded rainfall amounts for a
50-min storm over an area of 100 ha. Plot the
following:
i) Rainfall hyetograph
ii) Cumulative rainfall hyetograph
iii) Rainfall intensity hyetograph
iv) Rainfall volume received

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 SOLUTION
Time Rainfall (cm) Mass rainfall (cm) Rain intensity
(cm/hr)
10 0.127 0.127 0.76
(0.127 cm 0.167 hr)
just conversion
unit of minute to
hour

20 0.76 0.887 (0.76 + 0.127) 4.56

30 0.64 1.527 3.84
40 0.51 2.307 3.06
50 0.25 2.287 1.50
Rain fall
hyetograph

Mass rain fall

hyetograph
 d) Rainfall volume = mass
rainfall x area
= 2.287 x 1 m/100 cm x 100 ha.
= 2.287 ha.m

rain fall intensity

hyetograph
EXAMPLE 2-2 HYETOGRAPH & CUMULATIVE RAINFALL

Table 1 is a record of precipitation from a

recording gage for a storm in Town D for a
the period between midnight and 11.15 am
on the same day in increments of 0.25 hour.
For the data given, develop the mass
curves and rainfall hyetographs. Find the
maximum-intensity rainfall for the gage in
in./hr.
Table 1 rainfall data from a recording gage
 Solution
To plot the hyetograph for a gage:
1) We subtract the measurement for each time period
from that of the previous time period, and divide by
the time step to compute the rainfall intensity
(Column #3).
2) Because the data are given as a cumulative
readings, the mass curves are simple a plot of given
data (Graph 1).
Greatest slope for cumulative
region at max rainfall intensity at
4.00 am
 Tallest bar: Max
intensity at 4.00
am

The maximum intensity for the gage occurred at 4.00 am:

(3.1 – 2.32) in./0.25 hr = 3.12 in/hr
This max intensity appears at the tallest bar on the hyetograph and at the region of
greatest slope on the cumulative rainfall curve.
Conclusion: the mass curves is integral of the hyetograph.
In probability theory: the cumulative distribution function is the integral of the
probability density function.
Also observe 2 periods of intense rainfall (4.00 am and 7.25 am): these rainfall
capacity to produce flood and flooding.
 EXAMPLE 2.3 – WATER LOSSES

In a given year, a watershed with an area of 2500 km2

received 130 cm of precipitation. The average rate of
flow measured in a gage at the outlet of the watershed
was 30 m3/sec. Estimate the water losses due to the
combined effects of evaporation, transpiration, and
infiltration due to ground water. How much runoff
reached the river for the year (in cm). What is the runoff
coefficient?

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 Solution
A = 2,500 km2
P = 130 cm
R = 30 m3/s
Estimate ET and G
From Equ.
P = R + G + E + T + S

G+E+T=P–R
G (plus I) + ET is the combined effect

P – R = G + ET
Convert R unit to cm
R = 30 m3/s  100 cm/1m  3600 s/1 hr  24 hr/1 day  365
day/1 year  1 year
= 2500 km2 x (1000 m/1km)2
= 37.8 cm of run-off
ET + G = 130 – 37.8 cm = 92.2 cm
Runoff coefficient = R/P = 37.8/130

= 0.29
 ESTIMATION OF PRECIPITATION

Over an area effective depth of precipitation:

1. Arithmetic average:
for evenly distribute stations (uniform density)
3. Thiessen method
for area-weighted averaging
2. Isohyetal lines
for contouring

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Areal Estimation of P from a network of gages

13.97 mm

22.1 mm

137.2 mm
59.2 mm

48 mm

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 (1) Arithmetic average

Pa = 1/N ∑ Pi

(13.97 + 22.1 + 59.2 + 48.0+ 137.2)/5

= 56.1 mm

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 (2) Thiessen Polygon Method

Area-weighted average
(every gage represents best the area immediately around
the gage)
Constructing Thiessen Network:
1. Plot stations on a map (if using map tool/GIS) or can
use graph paper.
2. Connect all nearby rain gages by straight lines. You will
get triangle (dashed red lines)
3. Bisect each connecting line perpendicularly. These
bisectors meet at a common point inside or outside the
triangle.
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4. Perpendicular lines define a polygon around each station known as
Thiessen Polygon.
5. P at a station is applied to the polygon closest to it.
6. Area of polygon within watershed boundary can be measured
by GIS or by counting squares on graph paper.
7. Then individual area is divided by the total watershed area and
multiplied by the depth of rainfall (measured at its corresponding gage).
8. Sum of fraction area times rainfall for all the gages gives the average
rainfall over the watershed.

NOTE:
Perpendicular bisector separates the triangles legs into two
segments. It intersects the leg at 90 angle.
TP weigh each rain gage created by the solid perpendicular
bisector lines and the boundary of the watershed.
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St. P Polygon Weighted Weighted
No area area P

1 13.97 15 0.128 1.788

2 22.1 33 0.281 9.273

3 59.2 28.8 0.245 14.5

4 48 16.4 0.139 6.672

5 137.2 24.3 0.207 28.4

Tot 280.47 117.5 1.00 60.633

als

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 EXAMPLE 2-4 Thiessen Polygon Method
Use the graph paper
A small urban watershed
has four rainfall gages as
located in Fig.2. Total
rainfall recorded at each
gage during a storm event
is listed in the table below.
Compute the mean areal
rainfall for this storm using
(a) Arithmetic averaging
(b) Thiessen Method
Use scale : 1 mi=1 cm

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 Arithmetic average
To calculate the arithmetic average only the
gages that are present in the watershed
boundary need to be taken into account (B
and C only)

Arithmetic average : 2.92 + 3.01/2 = 2.96 in

Thiessen Polygon
 Gage Rainfall (in) Polygon Stn. Weight Weighted
(1) (2) Area (4) = (3)/(3) Rainfall (in.)
(mi2) (5) = (2) x (4)
(3)
A 3.26 106.7 0.237 0.773
B 2.96 70.6 0.157 0.464
C 3.01 194 0.431 1.29
D 3.05 78.1 0.174 0.530
 Sum of 1.00
area 3.05
449.4

Weighted rainfall is calculated using rainfall

x area % (in decimals)
Rainfall = 3.05 in.
Please redo this example
Can count the polygon area by counting
the boxes or measure by the
triangle/trapezium shape
 EXAMPLE 2-4 Thiessen Polygon Method

An experimental basin
has its coordinates (in
km) as given in Fig. 1.
There are four rain
gage stations in and
around. Compute the
main rainfall using (a)
Arithmetic averaging
(Ans: 26.2 mm)
(b) Thiessen Method
6, 0
(Ans: 29 mm)

Please use graph paper 40

 )3) isohyetal method

Based on areas calculated from contoured P map

(check first for effect of elevation by plotting P vs
elevation)
STEPS:
1. Plot a contour map of P based on gage
readings at station
2. Compute area between each successive
contour lines
Pa = PaiAi/  Ai
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Isohyetal method

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 Isohyetal method procedure
• Determine contours of 30
25
equal P: 20
28 26
(Isohyetal lines) 15
(4)
• Estimate representative 22
(3)
P for each region 17
(2)
• Calculate Pav (1)
P = Pi*Ai/AT 11

= P(1)*A(1)/AT +
P(2)*A(2)/AT + P(3)*A(3)/AT
+P(4)*A(4)/AT
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 Events During Precipitation
• Interception (8- 35% for densely
vegetated)
• Stem flow
• Infiltration
-infiltration capacity
– how fast water is absorbed into soil.
– effected greatly by soil type.
– Water infiltrates faster into sand than it does clay.
– Low infiltration capacity causes more runoff and more
erosion. 44
• Depression storage

• Overland flow (P rate > If rate)

• Interflow (horizontal flow in unsaturated

zone)

• Baseflow 45
 Chapter Highlights
1. Precipitation can occur in different forms-rain, drizzle, snow,
and sleet.
2. The standard (US) precipitation gage and various types of
recording gages (for example, tipping bucket) form the basis
for regional, station-based measurements.
3. Radars (such as NewRAD) provide a capability of
continuous precipitation measurements over thousands of
square miles.
4. Various statistical techniques are available to estimate
average precipitation from several stations scattered across
an area. Simplest technique is arithmetic average. More
sophisticated Thiessen polygon and isohyetal methods
provide different ways of weighting the individual data points
according to their area of influence.