146

HYDROGRAPH
INTRODUCTION

When a storm occurs it contributes to the stream-flow. Various instruments are

used to document storm characteristics, for example, rain gauges are used to
record period and depth of rainfall, current meter is used to find discharge in
streams, etc. The data thus collected is analyzed for its beneficial use. The stream-
flow characteristics are analyzed by what is called hydrograph analysis.

HYDROGRAPH
The graphical relation between any hydrological quantity (stage, velocity,
discharge, etc.) and the time is known as a hydrograph. Hydrographs are of three
types:

a. Discharge Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of discharge against time. Generally a hydrograph

means discharge hydrograph.

b. Stage Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of stage against time. Stage hydrograph is useful

only for the design of flood-protection works like embankment.

c. Velocity Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of velocity against time.

147
Effective Rainfall

As discussed under Hydrologic Cycle (Chapter One), all of the rain usually does
not go into the stream but a certain part of it reaches the stream and causes rise in
the stream-flow while the remaining part of rain is accounted for in various forms
of precipitation losses. The portion of rainfall which contributes to stream-flow is
called Effective Rainfall.

Basin Lag or Time Lag

A useful index to define the location of the peak of the hydrograph is the basin
lag, which is the time difference between the center of mass of the rainfall and the
center of the mass of the hydrograph. Rise of the stream-flow depends upon the
effective rainfall and type of the soil, and time lag depends upon type of area and
also upon characteristics of rainfall (Figure 6.1).

148
Parts of a Hydrograph

A hydrograph consists of three parts (fig 6.2):

a. The rising Limb ‘BC’

b. The crest or peak ‘C’.
c. The falling Limb or Recession curve ‘CDE’

The shape of the rising limb depends upon the storm characteristics which are the
duration of rainfall, intensity of rainfall, areal distribution of the rainfall, etc.

The crest segment is controlled by the storm characteristics and the distribution of
streams in the area, which further depends upon geological structure of the area.

The falling limb depends upon the control on storage release, which itself depends
upon the geological structure.

Fig 6.2 Parts of Hydrograph

Components of Hydrograph
A hydrograph normally consists of the four components:

i. Channel Precipitation
ii. Direct Runoff (DRO)
iii. Inter Flow or Sub-surface Flow
iv. Ground or Base Flow
149
HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS
Separation of Hydrograph Components
Hydrograph Analysis means dividing total runoff indicated by the hydrograph into
its (above-mentioned) components, of which direct runoff (DRO) and Base Flow
are more important.

The separation of hydrograph components is done by one of the following four

methods.
a. Straight Line Method
b. Fixed Base Length Method
c. Variable Slope Method
d. Recession Curve Equation

a. Straight Line Method

Let us consider a hydrograph as shown in figure 6.3. From point ‘A’ draw a
straight horizontal line which meets the falling limb of hydrograph at point ‘B’.
Above line ‘AB’ is the direct runoff and below this line is the base flow. The
volumes of direct runoff and base flow (i.e. area under the curve) can be
calculated by any suitable method.

The Straight Line Method for separation of hydrograph has the advantage of
producing an extremely long time base for the direct runoff hydrograph. The time
base varies from storm to storm depending on the flow at the point of rise. It is a
computationally easy method.

Fig. 6.3 Separation of Hydrograph Components

150
b. Fixed Base Length Method

Let us have the hydrograph shown in figure 6.4. From point ‘A’ (existing prior to
the storm) extend the curve to point ‘B’ which is vertically below the peak. Now
draw a line from point ‘B’ to point ‘C’ on the hydrograph equal to a distance on
X-axis given by equation below:

N=Ad0.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
Where,
N = Length of time in days, and
Ad = Drainage area in square miles
This line will meet the falling limb at, say point ‘C’. Join the point ‘B’ to ‘C’ by a
line ‘BC’. Area below ‘ABC’ is the base flow and that above it is the direct
runoff.

Figure 6.4 Separation of Base Flow by Fixed Base Length Method

151
c. Variable Slope Method

This method is based on the fact that if water rises in the stream the water level in
the stream becomes greater than the adjoining ground water table level. As a
result the flow occurs from the stream to the groundwater and is stored there as
bank storage.

Refer to figure 6.5, below. Take a point ‘A’ on the previous recession curve, and
the line ‘AE’ by extending the previous recession curve. Point ‘E’ is under the
peak. Now take a point ‘B’ on the recession curve and extend it backward. Take a
point ‘C’ on recession

Figure 6.5 Separation of Base Flow by Variable Slope Method

curve where the recession curve is changing slope, this point is called the point of
inflexion. Draw a vertical line from the point ‘C’. It cuts the line drawn backward
from point ‘B’, at point ‘D’. Join point ‘E’ and point ‘D’. The area under the line
‘AEDB’ shows the base flow component.

This method is not a well defined one. It depends upon experience, so it may vary
from one expert to another.

In general, Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest but also the least
accurate. Fixed Base Method is widely used and gives practically good results.

152
Whereas Variable Slope Method is not commonly used and is difficult but can
give better results depending upon the expertise of the person using it.

d. Recession Curve Equation

The recession side of the hydrograph is formed of the surface recession, interflow
recession and base flow recession. Although the interflow, because of similar
characteristics, is taken as part of the surface runoff in the hydrograph analysis;
there are means to separate the three components on the basis of the exponential
recession equation of the form.

– t
Q = Q0 e δ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.2

Where,
Q0 = initial discharge
Q = discharge a time interval afterwards
δ = recession constant
The equation can be written in a general form.
Q t+1 = Q t e -δt
Taking log on both sides
log ( Qt+1) = log (Q t e -δt)
log Qt+1 = log Qt - δt log e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.3

Graph of this equation for different recession constants ‘δ’ will give the
components of hydrograph.

Factors Affecting Hydrograph Shape

Hydrograph shape depends on climatic and catchment characteristics. Among the

climatic characteristics the most important are the rainfall intensity, duration and
weather. Among the catchment characteristics the topography and geological
conditions are more important. These are discussed below:

153
A. Storm Characteristics
a. Intensity of Rainfall

The intensity of rainfall has a predominant effect on the shape of the hydrograph.
If other conditions remain the same, a higher intensity storm will produce a rapid
rise in the hydrograph and a higher peak than that in case of a low intensity
rainfall. Such floods give little warning time and so are dangerous.

b. Duration of Rainfall

The duration of rainfall is important if it is greater than the time of concentration

(defined as the time of travel from the farthest point in the catchment area to the
gauging station). In such a situation, if the rainfall of certain intensity occurs
uniformly, the whole of the catchment area is contributing runoff at the gauging
station and the hydrograph attains its high peak. The runoff will remain constant
at the peak rate if the rainfall occurs for duration longer than the time of
concentration. If rainfall of the same intensity occurs for duration less than the
time of concentration, the hydrograph will rise to a smaller peak.

c. Weather

The shape of the hydrograph greatly depends on the seasonal distribution of

rainfall. During summer losses due to evaporation may produce a small peak
hydrograph. On the other hand, in winter, losses are small with the result that even
a small intensity storm may produce a relatively rapid rise and high peak of the
hydrograph. Antecedent soil moisture conditions (generally being higher in
winter) are important as for high soil moisture; the storm will produce more
runoff.

B. Catchment Characteristics
a. Size of Catchment

The catchment area affects the stream-flow in a variety of ways. Even if the
intensity and depth of precipitation is assumed to be constant, the hydrograph of a
smaller catchment rises to its peak and then recedes more rapidly than that for a
larger catchment, because for the latter, it takes longer for the runoff to reach the
gauging station. The hydrograph of a larger catchment area, therefore, has broader
base than that of a smaller one. Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be
the heterogeneity in soil and vegetation cover, with a consequent effect on the
stream-flow of each part of the catchment. The vegetation cover increases the time
of concentration.
154
b. Shape of the Catchment Area

The shape of the catchment area affects stream-flow by altering the time of
concentration and the pattern of drainage tributaries. If the length of the catchment
along the main stream is less than the width across the same stream, separate
runoff peaks generated by a heavy rainfall are likely to reach the gauging station at
the same time from the tributaries, with the result that the flood peak in the main
stream increases. Thus a hydrograph with a high peak and narrow base is
obtained.

However, if the length of the catchment along the main stream is larger than
width, the tributaries will be of shorter length and contribution from each tributary
area is likely to reach the gauging stations at intervals. After an intense storm
over the whole of the catchment area there will be some lag between the times at
which the peak from each tributary reaches the gauging station. The hydrograph
will therefore, have a low peak and broader base, because the remote tributaries
will continue contributing for some time even after the rainfall has stopped.

c. Elevation of the Catchment

The elevation of the catchment also plays an important role in some hydrologic
characteristics of hydrograph, particularly due to variation in temperature and
precipitation. The temperature reduces with the increase in elevation with the
result that above a certain elevation, the temperature becomes so low that all
precipitation falls as snow. In the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent, contribution from
areas at altitude 15,000 ft. above the mean sea level, is mainly due to snowmelt.
The floods from snowmelt are of usually low peak and broader base.

d. Catchment Slope

The slope of the catchment affects stream-flow by reducing the rate of infiltration
due to increased speed of water-movement towards drainage channels. The
steeper the slope, the faster will be the flow and rise in the hydrograph. The
hydrograph in such a situation will have higher peak and smaller base.

155
RATE OF RUNOFF
While designing hydraulic structures such as, we are mostly interested in
estimating maximum probable rate of runoff. Various methods of estimating
maximum probable rate of runoff are as under:

a. Frequency Analysis

It may be used provided adequate stream-flow records are available.

b. Empirical Formulae

Involving various physical characteristics of the basin

i. e. Q = C I A (Rational Formula) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.4
Where,
I = Intensity of rainfall,
C = Constant, and
A = Area of cross-section
Very detailed rainfall-runoff models have been developed which estimate losses
separately and hence calculate the direct runoff.

c. Flood Routing

Flood Routing has been discussed in Chapter 8, in detail.

d. Unit Hydrograph Method

Of the four methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff, the unit
hydrograph method is being discussed in detail in this chapter.

UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The T-hour unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph of direct runoff
resulting from unit rainfall-excess of a duration ‘T’ hours having occurred
uniformly all over the catchment and having a constant rate of occurrences.
156
The unit hydrograph theory is based on principles of linearity of runoff to rainfall-
excess and superposition. This is a linear process applied to a non-linear situation.

Physical characteristics of the basin remain relatively constant. The variable

characteristics of the storm cause variation in the shape of resulting hydrograph.
The storm characteristics as discussed earlier are the rainfall duration, time-
intensity pattern, areal distribution of rainfall and the amount of rainfall.

a. Rainfall Duration

The volume under unit hydrograph is always the same for a given catchment and
is equal to one unit, say one inch of runoff ( note that volume of one inch of runoff
means that one inch of rainfall excess over the whole catchment. The actual
volume will be the catchment area multiplied by one ). Peak value for a lesser
duration unit hydrograph is higher and is sharp, but the peak value for a higher
duration unit hydrograph is lower with larger base length.

b. Time Intensity Pattern

An infinite number of hydrographs would be required if an attempt is made to

draw separate unit hydrograph for each of the possible time-intensity patterns.
Practically
the unit hydrograph may be based only on an assumption of uniform intensity.
Higher-intensity storms will have higher peak with low base, and vice versa.

c. Areal Distribution of Rainfall

The unit hydrograph is based upon uniformly distributed rainfall over whole of the
catchment. So the actual flood hydrograph has to be estimated accordingly from
the unit hydrograph taking into account the effect of areal distribution of rainfall.

Here we will discuss only the concept of unit hydrograph.

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

The following steps are followed in deriving a unit hydrograph:

1. Select an isolated storm, for which reliable rainfall and runoff data are
available.

157
 2. Separate the base flow from the total runoff hydrograph and calculate the
volume of direct runoff.
3. Divide the ordinates of direct runoff by the effective rainfall. The resulting
hydrograph is a unit hydrograph for the catchment area for the given
duration of rainfall-excess. Estimation of rainfall-excess is illustrated in
numerical Example No. 6.1, below.

A unit hydrograph derived from a single storm may have some error, and it is
desirable to average the unit hydrograph from several storms of the same duration.
This should not be an arithmetic average of concurrent coordinates; since, if peaks
do not occur at the same time, the average peak will be lower than many of the
individual peaks. The proper procedure is to compute the average of the peak
flows and times to peak. The average unit hydrograph is then sketched to conform
to those of the other graphs, passing through the computed average peak, and
having a volume of one-inch.

Example 6.1
From the data given in Table 6.1 below, derive a 6-hour unit hydrograph if this
data is obtained from a six-hour duration storm and the catchment area is 3,200
square kilometers.

Table 6.1: Data for Unit hydrograph

Date Time Discharge Base Flow
(day) (m³/s) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
11-Jan 1st 21 21
12-Jan 2nd 21 21
13-Jan 3rd 21 21
14-Jan 4th 20 20
15-Jan 5th 20 20
16-Jan 6th 20 20
17-Jan 7th 20 20
18-Jan 8th 20 20
19-Jan 9th 521 11
20-Jan 10th 160 21
21-Jan 11th 82 29
22-Jan 12th 63 35
23-Jan 13th 59 47
24-Jan 14th 53 53
25-Jan 15th 47 47
26-Jan 16th 45 45
27-Jan 17th 38 38
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Solution
The calculations are shown in Table 6.2. The Direct Runoff (DRO) is obtained by
subtracting base flow from discharge values. The DRO is then multiplied by time
interval to get total volume. This total volume is divided by catchment area to get
depth of effective rainfall in centimeters spread uniformly over whole catchment.
By definition of unit hydrograph, its ordinates are obtained by dividing ordinates
of DRO by effective rain.

Table 6.2: Data for Unit hydrograph

Date Time Discharge Base DRO Volume Ordinates of Unit

Flow Hydrograph
(day) (m³/s) (m³/s) (m³/s) (x106 m³) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3)-(4) (6) (7)=(5)/Eff. Rain
11-Jan 1st 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
12-Jan 2nd 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
13-Jan 3rd 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
14-Jan 4th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
15-Jan 5th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
16-Jan 6th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
17-Jan 7th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
18-Jan 8th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
19-Jan 9th 521 11 510 44.06 255.00
20-Jan 10th 160 21 139 12.01 69.50
21-Jan 11th 82 29 53 4.58 26.50
22-Jan 12th 63 35 28 2.42 14.00
23-Jan 13th 59 47 12 1.04 6.00
24-Jan 14th 53 53 0 0.00 0.00
25-Jan 15th 47 47 0 0.00 0.00
26-Jan 16th 45 45 0 0.00 0.00
27-Jan 17th 38 38 0 0.00 0.00
Total Volume 64.11 x106 m³
Area 3200 x106 m² Volume 32.05x106 m³
Effective Rain 2.00cm Effective Rain 1.00 cm

159
Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Once the unit hydrograph of certain duration is determined, it can be used to

compute a hydrograph of the same duration. In order to derive the hydrograph of
same duration as that of the unit hydrograph, we have to proceed in reverse to the
process used to derive unit hydrograph. The procedure will be as follows:

1. The unit hydrograph of a certain duration is given.

2. Derive the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph by multiplying the unit
hydrograph ordinates by effective rainfall.
3. Add base flow to the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph to get total
runoff hydrograph. The peak of this hydrograph gives the maximum flow
due to the storm.

Example 6.2

Given the unit hydrograph of 4-hour duration (Table 6.3), calculate the ordinates
of total runoff hydrograph of same duration from an excess precipitation of 10 cm.
Assume constant Base Flow of 14 m3/sec.

160
 Table 6.3: Data for unit hydrograph and derivation of total runoff hydrograph.

Date Time Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph

(Hours) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3)
1-Jan 12 Noon 0.00
24 Midnight 3.00
2-Jan 12 Noon 17.00
24 Midnight 34.00
3-Jan 12 Noon 51.00
24 Midnight 17.00
4-Jan 12 Noon 6.00
24 Midnight 0.00

Solution

The rainfall-excess has been reported as 10 cm. The ordinates of unit hydrograph
are simply multiplied by excess rainfall to get ordinates of Direct Runoff (DRO).
Once the ordinates of DRO are obtained, base flow is added to it to get Total flow
ordinates. These computations are given in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Derivation of total runoff hydrograph.

Date Time Time Ordinates DRO Base Total Flow
of Unit Flow
Hydrograph
(Hours) (Hours) (m³/s) (m³/s) (m³/s) (m³/s)
(5)=(4) x Excess
(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (7)=(5)+(6)
Rainfall Depth

1-Jan 12 Noon 0 0.00 0 14 14

24 Midnight 12 3.00 30 14 44
2-Jan 12 Noon 24 17.00 170 14 184
24 Midnight 48 34.00 340 14 354
3-Jan 12 Noon 60 51.00 510 14 524
24 Midnight 72 17.00 170 14 184
4-Jan 12 Noon 84 6.00 60 14 74
24 Midnight 96 0.00 0 14 14

161
The unit hydrograph, DRO hydrograph and total hydrograph is shown in fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.7 Total Runoff Hydrograph

S Curve

The S curve is hydrograph obtained by summation of infinite number of unit

hydrographs of given duration each lagged by time interval equal to the duration
of the given hydrograph. The S curve can be used to derive unit hydrograph of any
desired duration. The Derivation of the S curve is very simple. We keep on adding
given unit hydrograph ordinates each lagged by time equal to the duration of given
hydrograph from the previous one till we obtain a constant value after addition or
it starts fluctuating between some values.

The procedure of derivation of unit hydrograph from a given unit hydrograph is

explained further in the following example.

Example 6.3

Given is a unit hydrograph of 2 hour duration (column 2 of Table 6.5). Derive the
2 hours duration ‘S’ curve.

162
 Table 6.5: Ordinates of 2 -Hour Unit Hydrograph
Time (Hours) Flow (m³/s)
0 0
2 95
4 164
6 121
8 91
10 54
12 18
14 0

SOLUTION

First, we derive ‘S’ curve: The calculations are shown in Table 6.6. In this table
ordinates of unit hydrograph of 2-hour duration are given in column 2. Column 1
is time in hours. Other columns have ordinates in m³/s. Columns 3 to 14 show
lagged unit hydrographs. Column 15 is the addition which is the ‘S’ curve.

The ‘S’ curve is shown in Figure 6.8

Figure 6.8 ‘S’ Curve

163
 Table 6.6:
Unit hydrograph data and derivation of S curve.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

0 0 0
2 95 0 95
4 164 95 0 259
6 121 164 95 0 380
8 91 121 164 95 0 471
10 54 91 121 164 95 0 525
12 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
14 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
16 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
18 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
20 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
22 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
24 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
26 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 543
28 0 18 54 91 121 164
30 0 18 54 91 121
32 0 18 54 91
34 0 18 54
36 0 18
38 0

164
Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph
The procedure for derivation of any required duration unit hydrograph from a
given-duration unit hydrograph is described below:

1. Derive the S-Curve (as per procedure explained above).

2. Offset the position of the S-curve for a period equal to the desired duration
of hydrograph to be derived. This is called the lagged S-curve.
3. Subtract the ordinates of lagged S-curve from the original S-curve at the
respective time intervals.
4. The ordinates of unit hydrograph of required duration are obtained by
multiplying the difference obtained in Step-3 with the ratio ‘ given
duration over required duration’ ( i. e. multiply by the ratio = given
duration/desired duration )

Example 6.4
Given is unit hydrograph of 2-hours duration (Column (2), Table 6.5 of Example
6.3). Find 6-hours unit hydrograph for the same catchment.

Solution
The derivation of S curve is given in Example 6.3. Using that S curve the
derivation of 6 hours unit hydrograph is given below in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Derivation of 6 hours unit hydrograph from 2 hours unit hydrograph.

Time 2-hour Unit S-Curve Lagged Difference 6 Hour Unit

Hydrograph S-Curve Hydrograph
Ordinates Ordinates
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3)-(4) = (5) x 2 / 6
0 0 0 0 0
2 95 95 95 32 95 * (2/6)
4 164 259 259 86
6 121 380 0 380 127
8 91 471 95 376 125
10 54 525 259 266 89
12 18 543 380 163 54
14 0 543 471 72 24
16 543 525 18 6
18 543 543 0 0

165
The given 2-hr hydrograph and developed 6-hr hydrographs are shown in Figure
6.9. It may be noted that increasing the duration of unit hydrograph has decreased
peak flow.

Figure 6.9 Two Hour and Six Hour Unit Hydrograph

Composite Hydrograph

The stream-flow hydrograph may be due to more than one storm. In that case we
have to separate the effect of each storm. This is composite hydrograph
separation. Here the analogy is used that ordinates of composite hydrograph are
proportional to intensity of rainfall.

Example 6.5

Given is hydrograph resulting from two storms each of 6-hours duration (Table
6.8). The rainfall intensity of first storm is 0.8 cm and that of second storm is 0.6
cm each of 6-hr duration. Separate the hydrograph of both storms and find 6 hr
unit hydrograph for each storm.

166
Solution

Refer to Table 6.9. The following steps illustrate the procedure

i. Total rainfall is 0.8 + 0.6 = 1.4 cm. The contribution of second storm
relative to the first storm is 0.6 / 0.8 = 0.75. The ordinates of first
hydrograph are, therefore obtained by subtracting effect of second
hydrograph from composite hydrograph. Since second storm occurs 6
hours later than the first one, the first ordinate of composite hydrograph is
due to contribution of first storm. Therefore first ordinate of first
hydrograph is 750 - 0 = 750.
ii. The second ordinate is obtained by subtracting (0.6 / 0.8) x 750 = 562.50
from second ordinate of composite hydrograph i.e. 1400 - 562.50 =
837.50. The third ordinate of first storm hydrograph is obtained by
subtracting 0.75 x 837.50 = 628.12 from third ordinate of composite
hydrograph i.e. 1671.88 and so on. The calculations are shown in table 6.9.
iii. The ordinates of second hydrograph are obtained simply by subtracting
ordinates of first hydrograph from composite hydrograph.
iv. For unit hydrograph ordinates of each hydrograph are divided by their
respective rainfall intensities.

Table 6.8.
Data of Composite Hydrograph
Date Time Composite Date Time Composite Date Time Composite
Hydrograph Hydrograph Hydrograph
(Hours) (cumecs) (Hours) (cumecs) (Hours) (cumecs)

22-04-65 0 - 25-04-65 60 19,100.00 27-04-65 120 3,300.00

6 750.00 66 15,000.00 126 2,900.00
12 1,400.00 72 11,400.00 132 2,600.00
18 2,300.00 78 9,300.00 138 2,100.00
23-04-65 24 3,000.00 84 7,800.00 28-04-65 144 1,700.00
30 7,000.00 90 6,300.00 150 1,300.00
36 13,000.00 26-04-65 96 5,700.00 156 900.00
42 23,000.00 102 4,800.00 162 600.00
24-04-65 48 29,700.00 108 4,000.00 29-04-65 168 -
54 25,000.00 114 3,700.00

167
 Table 6.9 Separation of Component Hydrographs

Date Time Composite First 6 Hour Second 6 6 Hour Unit 6 Hour Unit
Hydrograph Hydrograph Hour Hydrograph Hydrograph
Hydrograph (First Storm) (Second
Storm)
(Hours) (cumecs) (0.8 cm) (0.6 cm)
22-04-65 0 - - - -
6 750.00 750.00 - 937.50 -
12 1,400.00 837.50 562.50 1,046.88 937.50
18 2,300.00 1,671.88 628.13 2,089.84 1,046.88
23-04-65 24 3,000.00 1,746.09 1,253.91 2,182.62 2,089.84
30 7,000.00 5,690.43 1,309.57 7,113.04 2,182.62
36 13,000.00 8,732.18 4,267.82 10,915.22 7,113.04
42 23,000.00 16,450.87 6,549.13 20,563.58 10,915.22
24-04-65 48 29,700.00 17,361.85 12,338.15 21,702.31 20,563.58
54 25,000.00 11,978.61 13,021.39 14,973.27 21,702.31
60 19,100.00 10,116.04 8,983.96 12,645.05 14,973.27
66 15,000.00 7,412.97 7,587.03 9,266.21 12,645.05
25-04-65 72 11,400.00 5,840.27 5,559.73 7,300.34 9,266.21
78 9,300.00 4,919.80 4,380.20 6,149.74 7,300.34
84 7,800.00 4,110.15 3,689.85 5,137.69 6,149.74
90 6,300.00 3,217.38 3,082.62 4,021.73 5,137.69
26-04-65 96 5,700.00 3,286.96 2,413.04 4,108.70 4,021.73
102 4,800.00 2,334.78 2,465.22 2,918.47 4,108.70
108 4,000.00 2,248.92 1,751.08 2,811.14 2,918.47
114 3,700.00 2,013.31 1,686.69 2,516.64 2,811.14
27-04-65 120 3,300.00 1,790.02 1,509.98 2,237.52 2,516.64
126 2,900.00 1,557.49 1,342.51 1,946.86 2,237.52
132 2,600.00 1,431.88 1,168.12 1,789.85 1,946.86
138 2,100.00 1,026.09 1,073.91 1,282.61 1,789.85
28-04-65 144 1,700.00 930.43 769.57 1,163.04 1,282.61
150 1,300.00 602.17 697.83 752.72 1,163.04
156 900.00 448.37 451.63 560.46 752.72
162 600.00 263.72 336.28 329.65 560.46
29-04-65 168 - - - - -
Composite hydrograph along with component hydrograph is shown
in Figure 6.10.

Fig 6.10 Separation of Component Hydrographs from Composite Hydrograph

Example 6.6
Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 6.10, Take R2 / R1 =
1.2

Table 6.10
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
q1 0 200 400 1000 2800 1400 900 700 480 200 0

Solution

Table 6.11 below gives calculations for determination of q2 & Q, in which

ordinates of q2 have been calculated by using a modified but simple formula given
in the table.

169
 Table 6.11 Hydrograph Data
TIME q1 Ordinates of Discharge Q of
q2=(R1/R2)xq1(n-1). complex
hydrograph
0 0 0
1 200 0 200
2 400 240 640
3 1000 480 1480
4 2800 1200 4000
5 1400 3360 4760
6 900 1680 2580
7 700 1080 1780
8 480 840 1320
9 200 576 776
10 0 240 240
11 0 0

Composite hydrograph along with component hydrograph is shown

in Figure 6.11.

Figure 6.11

170
Example 6.7
Repeat example 6.6 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table
6.12 below) for its separation into its components q1 & q2 with R1/R2 =1.2

Solution: Table 6.12 Calculations for Separation of Complex hydrograph

TIME Discharge Q Ordinates of q1 = Qn - Ordinates of
(Hours) of complex (R1/R2) x q1(n-1). q2 = (R1/R2)xq1(n-1).
hydrograph (Cumecs) (Cumecs)
(Cumecs)
0 0 0
1 200 200 0
2 640 400 240
3 1480 1000 480
4 4000 2800 1200
5 4760 1400 3360
6 2580 900 1680
7 1780 700 1080
8 1320 480 840
9 776 200 576
10 240 0 240
11 0 0

171
Example 6.8
Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 6.13, Take
R2 / R1= 1.2 and R3/ R1= 1.5

Table 6.13 Hydrograph Data

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
q1 0 200 400 1000 2800 1400 900 700 480 200 0

Solution

Table 6.14 below gives calculations for determination of q2, q3 and Q, in which
ordinates of q2 and q3 have been calculated by using modified but simple formulae
given in the table.

Table 6.14 Hydrograph Data

time q1 Ordinates of Ordinates of Discharge Q of
q2=(R2/R1)xq1(n-1). q3=(R3/R1)xq1(n-2). complex
hydrograph
hr (1) (2) (3) (1) + (2) + (3)
0 0 0
1 200 0 200
2 400 240 0 640
3 1000 480 300 1780
4 2800 1200 600 4600
5 1400 3360 1500 6260
6 900 1680 4200 6780
7 700 1080 2100 3880
8 480 840 1350 2670
9 200 576 1050 1826
10 0 240 720 960
11 0 300 300
12 0 0

172
Figure 6.13 shows complex hydrograph.

Figure 6.13 Complex Hydrograph

Example 6.9
Repeat example 6.8 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table
6.15 below) for its separation into its components q1, q2 & q3 with R1/R2 =1.2 &
R1/R3 =1.5.

Table 6.15 Calculations for Separation of Complex hydrograph (see Fig. 6.14)
N Time Discharge Ordinates of Ordinates of Ordinates of
Q of q1 = Qn - q2 = (R1/R2)x q1(n-1). q3=(R1/R3)x q1(n-2).
complex (R1/R2)xq1(n-1) -
hydrograph (R1/R3)xq1(n-2).

0 1 0 0
1 2 200 200 0
2 3 640 400 240 0
3 4 1780 1000 480 300
4 5 4600 2800 1200 600
5 6 6260 1400 3360 1500
6 7 6780 900 1680 4200
7 8 3880 700 1080 2100
8 9 2670 480 840 1350
9 10 1826 200 576 1050
10 11 960 0 240 720
11 12 300 0 300
12 13 0 0
173
 Figure 6.14 Complex Hydrograph

Synthetic Hydrograph

For un-gauged catchments, unit hydrograph developed from characteristics of

similar catchments is called Synthetic hydrograph.

Synthetic hydrograph is obtained by mathematically correlating catchment

characteristics. Different approaches are available for developing a synthetic
hydrograph, some of which are:

a. Bernard’s method
b. McCarthy’s Method
c. Snyder’s Method
d. Taylor and Schartz Method

Of these, Snyder’s Method is the most commonly used method, which is briefly
described here.

Snyder’s method

174
Following are the steps involved in unit hydrograph construction according to
Snyder’s method.
Step (i)

To find ‘Time to Peak’, Snyder proposed,

tp = C1 Ct (L Lc)0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.5)

Where,
tp = Basin Lag in Hours. Basin Lag is the time between centre of mass of
unit rain and peak flow (See Figure 6.15).
L = Distance from gauging station to catchment boundary.
Lc = Distance in kilometers between gauging station and cancroids of
catchment. It is measured from gauging station along the main stream to the point
nearest to cancroids of catchment.
Ct = A coefficient determined from the gauged catchment in same or
similar region. Its value ranges from 1.35 to 1.65.
C1 is a constant whose value in MKS system of units is 0.75.

Figure 6.15 Definition of tr and tp in Snyder’s Method

Step (ii)

The peak discharge is given by:

175
 qp = C2 Cp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.6)
tp
Where,
C2 is a constant having value of 2.75
Cp = A coefficient determined from the gauged catchment in same or
similar region. Its value ranges from 0.56 to 0.69. (See Figure 6.16)

Figure 6.16 Definition of qp, W50 and W75

The coefficients ‘Ct’ and ‘Cp’ are determined as explained below:

Determination of ‘Ct’ and ‘Cp’

L is measured from map

Lc is measured from map
tR - Effective duration measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar
catchment.
tPR - Basin lag measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar
catchment.

176
 qPR - Peak Discharge from unit hydrograph derived for similar catchment.

If,
tPR = 5 tR then tR = tr
Else,
tPR = tp and qPR = qP

By back substitution, ‘Ct’ and ‘Cp’ can be determined from Equations (6.5) and
(6.6).

If,
tPR ≠ 5.5 tR , then the standard basin lag is
tP = tPR + tr-tR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.7)
4
Also, tp = 5.5 tr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.8)

Equations (6.7) and (6.8) are solved simultaneously for ‘tr’ and ‘tP’. ‘Ct’ and ‘Cp’
are then found from Equations (6.5) and (6.6) with conditions qPR = qP and tPR =
tp. (Figure 6.17)

Figure 6.17 Definition of tR, tPR and tb

Step (iii)

177
The Peak Discharge of required hydrograph is found using equation 6.9.

qPR = qP tp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.9)
tPR

Step (iv)

The base time of required hydrograph is determined by equation 6.10.

Base Time tb = C3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.10)

qPR
Where ‘C3’ is a constant having value of 5.56.

Step (v)

Width of Hydrograph ‘W’ is given by equation 6.11. The coefficient ‘Cw’ defines
value of peak discharge where width of hydrograph is required. For example,
width at discharge which is 75% and 50% of Peak discharge is to be calculated:

W = Cw qPR-1.08 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.11)
For qPR = 75%, Cw = 1.22
For qPR = 50%, Cw = 2.14
(See Figure 6.7)

Example 6.10

Develop 3-hour and 6-hour unit hydrographs for a catchment area measuring
135.8 Sq. miles with following data:
Ct = 1.50, Cp = 0.60 L = 29.5 miles Lc = 15 miles

Also calculate total run-off in inches for the catchment in each case.

Solution
Step-1

 Basin Lag, tp = Ct x (L x Lc)0.30

= 1.50 x (29.5 x 15)0.30
178
 = 9.33 hours
 Standard duration of rainfall,
tr = tp /5.50
= 9.33/5.50
= 1.70 hours
Step-2 3-hour duration unit hydrograph

 tR = 3 hours > tr

 Basin Lag, tPR = tP + [tR – tr]/4

= 9.33 + [3-1.70]/4
= 9.66 hours

 Peak discharge, qPR = 640 x Cp x A /tPR

= 640 x 0.60 x 135.8/9.66
= 5398.36 cfs

 Time base, TR = 3 x (1 + tPR /24)

= 3 x (1 + 9.66/24)
= 4.21 days
= 101 hours

 50% of qPR = 2694.5 cusecs

W50 = 770 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 770 / [5398.36 / 135.8 ]1.08
= 14.40 hours

 75% of qPR = 4048.70 cusecs

W75 = 440 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 440 / [5398.36 / 135.8 ]1.08
= 8.24 hours

 Plot unit hydrograph using above calculated values. The graph is shown
in Fig 6.18 below. It has been plotted using definitions given in Figs. 6.16
and 6.17 above.

 From Fig. 6.18, tabulate the values of discharge against equal time
interval of any length say at 6 hours interval (17*6 = 102 close to 101).
These values have been shown in Table 6.16

179
 Fig. 6.18 Synthetic Hydrograph

Table 6.16 Hydrograph Data

Time (Hours) Q (cfs)
0 0
6 2550.00
12 5200.00
18 3100.00
24 1300.00
30 950.00
36 530.00
42 300.00
48 200.00
54 150.00
60 110.00
66 100.00
72 80.00
78 60.00
84 30.00
90 20.00
96 10.00
101 (say 102) 0
Total 14690

180
  Total run-off = [14690 x 6 x 60 x 60]
[24 x 60 x 60]
= 3672.50 sfd
= 3672.50 / 26.90
= 136.52 inches-mile
Run-off = 136.52 / 135.8
= 1.00 inch

Step 3 6-hour duration unit hydrograph

 tR = 6 hours > tr
 Basin Lag, tPR = tP + [tR – tr]/4
= 9.33 + [6-1.70]/4
= 10.41 hours
 Peak discharge, qPR = 640 x Cp x A /tPR
= 640 x 0.60 x 135.8/10.41
= 5009.34 cfs
 Time base, TR = 3 x (1 + tPR /24)
= 3 x (1 + 10.41/24)
= 4.30 days
= 103 hours
 50% of qPR = 2504.67 cusecs
W50 = 770 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 770 / [5009.34 / 135.8 ]1.08
= 15.64 hours
 75% of qPR = 3757.00 cusecs
W75 = 440 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 440 / [5009.34 / 135.8 ]1.08
= 8.94 hours
 Plot unit hydrograph using above calculated values. The graph is shown
in Fig 6.19 below. It has been plotted using definitions given in Figs. 6.16
and 6.17 above.
 From Fig. 6.19, tabulate the values of discharge against equal time
interval of any length say at 6 hours interval (17*6 = 102 close to 101). These
values have been shown in Table 6.17

181
 Fig. 6.19Synthetic Hydrograph
Table 6.17
Time (Hours) Q (cfs) Time (Hours) Q (cfs)
0 0 60 150.00
6 1880.00 66 110.00
12 4450.00 72 90.00
18 3800.00 78 80.00
24 1500.00 84 50.00
30 1050.00 90 30.00
36 600.00 96 20.00
42 350.00 101 (say 102) 0
48 250.00
Total 14610
54 200.00

 Total run-off = [14610 x 6 x 60 x 60]

[24 x 60 x 60]
= 3652.50 sfd
= 3652.50 / 26.90
= 135.78 inches-mile
Run-off = 135.78 / 135.8 = 1.00 inch

182
QUESTIONS
1. Define Hydrograph and explain its significance in Hydrology.

2. Discuss shape of hydrograph with respect to catchment characteristics.

3. Explain various methods for separating base flow from direct runoff in
hydrograph. Can a unit hydrograph used directly to forecast DRO and peak
of a flood, if the intensity of rainfall is not constant?

4. Define Unit Hydrograph and compare it with DRO Hydrograph. Criticize

the assumptions involved in unit hydrograph theory.

5. What is the practical significance of a unit hydrograph? What are the three
propositions of the unit hydrograph theory?

6. Explain the step by step procedure for deriving unit hydrograph from DRO
hydrograph and vice versa?

7. What is S Curve? Explain its utility in hydrology.

8. How ordinates of unit hydrograph are related to rainfall intensity?

9. Why we need separation of composite hydrographs?

10. What is synthetic hydrograph? Explain the method employed for deriving
synthetic hydrograph. Comment on the merits and demerits of these
methods.

183
EXERCISE
Problem 6.1

Table P6.1 shows the ordinates at 24 hour intervals for a hydrograph. Separate the
base flow from the direct runoff. Compute the volume of DRO.

Table P6.1 Hydrograph Data

Time (days) Flow (m³/s) Time (days) Flow (m³/s)

1 2 8 3
2 28 9 2
3 20 10 2
4 11 11 2
5 7 12 1
6 5 13 1
7 3 14 1

Problem 6.2

The hydrograph tabulated below in Table P6.2 resulted from a 6-hour period of
rainfall. Considering the base flow as 11 m³/s, find the 6-hour unit hydrograph for
the basin having 148 sq. km drainage area.

Table P6.2 Unit Hydrograph Data

Time (hours) Flow (m³/s) Time (hours) Flow (m³/s)

0 11 21 100
3 33 24 67
6 91 27 38
9 103 30 20
12 125 33 14
15 135 36 11
18 120

184
 Problem 6.3

Given below in Table P6.3 is the data for the unit hydrograph resulting from a 4-
hours duration rainfall, for a certain basin. Derive the S-curve ordinates. Hence
derive the ordinates for unit hydrographs of 2-hours and 6-hours durations.

Table P6.3 Unit Hydrograph Data

Time (hours) Flow (m³/s) Time (hours) Flow (m³/s)

0 0 8 109
2 117 10 64
4 197 12 21
6 145 14 0

Problem 6.4

Table P6.4 shows the data for the hydrograph resulting from a 3-hours duration
rainfall for a catchment having area of 3,200 km². Derive the unit hydrograph.

Table P6.4 Hydrograph Data

Time Day 1 Flow (m³/s) Day 2 Flow (m³/s)

3 AM 17 130
9 AM 170 99
12 Noon 269 88
6 PM 198 68
9 PM 173 59
12 PM 150 54

Problem 6.5

Three consecutive storms of 5 cm 7.5 cm and 4 cm of 6 hours durations each on a

basin produced the stream-flows as given in Table P6.5. The basin area is 54
square kilometers. Assuming a constant base flow of 7 m³/s and average storm
loss of 0.4 cm/hour, derive a 6 hour unit hydrograph.

185
 Table P6.5 Discharge Data

Time Flow (m³/s) Time Flow (m³/s)

0 8 21 42
3 12 24 30
6 15 27 21
12 39 30 14
15 46 36 9
18 49 39 8

Problem 6.6

The hydrograph of Table P6.6 resulted from three successive 6-hour period
rainfall, having runoff estimated as 1.5, 3.0 and 2.3 cm, respectively. The area of
the basin is 148.5 km². Assuming a constant base flow of 10 m³/s, derive the
ordinates of a 6-hour unit hydrograph for the basin.

Table P6.6 Discharge Data

Time (Hours) Flow (m³/s) Time (Hours) Flow (m³/s)

0 10 21 99
3 31 24 65
6 89 27 36
9 90 30 19
12 198 33 13
15 132 36 10
18 193

Problem 6.7

The stream-flows due to three successive storms of 3.7, 6 and 2.7 cm of 6-hours
duration each on a basin are given in Table P6.7. The area of the basin is 51 km².
Assuming a constant base flow of 8.5 m³/s and  index of 0.25 cm/hour, derive a
6 hour unit hydrograph.

186
 Table P6.7 Discharge Data

Time Stream-Flow Time Stream-Flow

(Hours) (m³/s) (Hours) (m³/s)
0 8 21 42
3 12 24 31
6 15 27 21
9 27 30 14
12 39 33 10
15 46 36 9
18 49 39 8

Problem 6.8

Two catchments A and B are considered meteorology similar. Their catchment

characteristics are given below in Table P6.8.

Table P6.8 Catchment Characteristics of Catchments A and B

Catchment A Catchment B
L = 39 km L = 45 km
Lca = 15 km Lca = 25 km
A = 250 km² A = 400 km²

For catchment A, a 2-h unit hydrograph was developed and was found to have a
peak discharge of 50 m³/s. The time to peak from the beginning of the rainfall
excess in this unit hydrograph was 9.0 h. Using Snyder’s method, develop a unit
hydrograph for catchment B.

Problem 6.9

A basin has 400 sq. km. of area, L=35 km and Lca = 10 km. Assuming Ct = 1.5
and
Cp = 0.70, develop a 3-hour synthetic unit hydrograph for this basin using
Snyder’s method.

187
Problem 6.10

Table P6.10 shows the ordinates of the 9-hour unit hydrograph for the entire
catchment of a river up to a dam site.

Table P6.10 Discharge Data

Time Discharge Time Discharge
(Hours) (m³/s) (Hours) (m³/s)
0 0 36 118
9 69 45 74
18 1000 54 46
27 210

The catchment characteristics are:

A = 4480 km², L = 318 km, Lca = 198 km

Derive a 3 hour unit hydrograph of another catchment which is meteorologically

and hydrologically similar and has the following characteristics.

A = 3780 km², L = 284 km, Lca = 198 km

Use Snyder’s approach with necessary modifications for the shape of the
hydrograph.

Problem 6.11
Using Snyder’s method, derive the 6-hour unit hydrograph by using the following
data.

Ct = 2.65, Cp = 0.56, A = 3500 km²

L = 150 km, Lca = 75 km

188