Water Supply & Drainage

SyStem engineering

for mSc StuDentS

By: Dr. Z.a.

2014 e.c.
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1.38 b km3

Earth water
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 QUANTITY OF WATER

INTRODUCTION
•Basic requirements for safe water
.- Drinking: 2–3 liters/day
-20–50 liters/capita/day for cooking and basic hygiene
Minimum acceptable standard for living (WHO)
• The estimated water supply coverage for Ethiopia is
34% for rural and 97 % for urban and the country’s
water supply coverage 44%.
• Access to water-supply services is defined as the
availability of at least 20 litres per person per day
from an "improved" source within 1 km of the
user's dwelling.
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 Water Supply Engineering

WS project contain:-
planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of water supply systems.
•Planning should be economical, socially
acceptable, and environmentally friendly that
meet the present as well as future requirement.

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Quantity of water depend on:-
v Population
v Demand
v Design period

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1. Population forecasting
 Population Forecasting Methods
ØArithmetic Increase Method;
ØGeometric Increase Method;
ØIncremental Increase Method;
ØDecreasing Rate of Growth Method;
ØSimple Graphical Method;
ØComparative Graphical Method;
ØRatio Method and
ØLogistic Curve Method.
 Example of some methods
qArithmetical method for slow growing town

P f= P2 + nI
Pf=P2 + P2-P1(tf-t2) where :-n-year and I -averege
t2-t1

qGeometrical method for fast growing town

P f= P2 (1+Ig/100) n
lnPf=lnP2 +ln P2-lnP1 (tf-t2)
t2-t1

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 Example 1
The Annual Growth Rate of a town in Ethiopia is 3.5%. Ass
present population of the town (in 2010) is 4500, what wo
population in 2025?
AGR = 3.5%;
Po = 4500
n = 2025-2010 = 15
�� = (1 + ���/100)�
�15 = 4500(1 + 3.5/100)15 =7540
 Exercise 2
1.Estimate the 2026 population of a town whose census records
is shown below.

Year 1974 1984 1994 2004 2014

Population: 6,015 8,152 10,000 35,711 55,774

Find:-
i. Arithmetic method
ii. Geometric Method by both formula

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 2. Demand of water
Per capita demand = Q/p*365 litres/day

Leakage Loss of water in

litres per day

30 drops per minute 8

60 drops per minute 17

120 drops per minute 34 23

 Con’t
• Factor affecting losses of water
ØWater tights joint
ØPressure of distribution
ØSystem of supply
ØMetering
ØIllegal connection
Water consumption is varies in season, day and
hour
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 Con’t…….
Factor affecting water demand
ØClimatic conditions
ØCost of water
ØLiving Standards
ØIndustries
ØQuality of water supply
ØSize of city

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 Different Draft
i. Qhr-avg = Qday-avg
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ii. Qday-max=1.5xQday-avg

iii. Qhr-max= 1.5xQday-max

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Hence Qhr-max=1.5x1.5Qday-avg =10%Qday-avg(approximate)
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NBFU… iv. Qf=231.6P [1-0.01P]

where:- Qf in m3/hr p in 1000

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 Water Supply Components
Design Capacity of different components of water supply scheme:-
i. Intake structure for fetching the raw water from source
(groundwater or surface water,)
Qday-max or Qday-avg w/c is greater
ii. Pipe main (Type I and II)
Qday-max
iii. Filters and other units in Treatment plant
1.6 Qday-avg or Qday-max w/c is greater
iv. Pumps
a. Law Lift
2Qday-avg *af or 4/3 Qday-max * af w/c is greater
b. High Lift
2Qday-avg * af or 4/3 Qhr-max * af w/c is greater
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Where:- af- adjusting factor =24/hours
WATER SUPPLY COMPONENT
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 Con’t
V. Distribution system and type III pipe

Qhr-max or Qcd = Qday-max + Qf w/c is greater

Exercise 2

2. A water supply scheme is to be designed for a city of

100,000. Estimate
a) The kinds of drafts which may be required using an
average water consumption of 250l/c/d
b) The capacities of the major components of the
proposed water works using river as a source of supply,
the pumps operated for 8 hrs .
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 3. Design Period
no Unit Design Special features
period
(years)
1 Community water wells 5-10 Easy to extend
2 Large dams & conduits 25-50 Costly & difficult to enlarge
3 Filter plants & Distribution system 10-25 Costly but easy to extend
4 Trunk lines, source to the city 15-25 Costly & difficult to extend
5 Pump station 10 Easy to extend

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 Exercise 3
3.For a town having population of 60,000
estimate average daily demand of water, Max.
daily demand and Coincident Draft. Assume
industrial use 10%, institutional & commercial
use 15 %, public use 5% and live stock 10% of
domestic demand. Take per capita consumption
of 50 l/day and leakage to be 5%.

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 Solution
P = 60,000
Domestic = 50 x 60,000 = 3000000 l/day= 3000 m3/day
Industrial = 0.10 x 3000 m3/day = 300 m3/day,
Inst & com. = 0.15 x 3000 m3/day = 450 m3/day
public = 0.05 x 3000 m3/day = 150 m3/day
live stock = 0.10 x 3000 m3/day = 300 m3/day
leakage = 0.05 x 3000 m3/day = 150 m3/day
Total average daily demand = 4,350 m3/day
Qday-max=1.5 x Qday-avg.=1.5x4350= 6,525m3/day
Qf=(231.6p[1-0.01p]= (231.660[1-
0.0160]=1655m3/hr=1655x24=39,720m3/day
Qcd=Qday-max. + Qf =6525+39720= 46,245m3/day

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 CHAPTER TWO
SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY

• Types of water supply sources

Surface water sources
– Rain water
– Lakes and reservoirs
– River water
– Sea water…

Groundwater sources
– Spring water
– wells
– Infiltration gallery…

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface water sources
Advantages of Surface water sources
Ø Easy to abstract water by direct pumping
Ø Water can be treated after use and put back into a river
Ø Dams and reservoirs can be used for hydroelectric power
Ø Reservoirs can be used for recreation
Disadvantages of Surface water sources
Ø Water will need treatment
Ø Seasonal
Ø Construction of expensive and environmentally damaging
dams
Ø Flooding and silting of land for reservoirs
Ø Requires sufficient rainfall and large river catchment. 37
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ground water
sources
Advantages of ground water sources
Ø It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria
Ø It is free from turbidity and color
Ø It can be used without further treatment
Ø It can be found in the close vicinity
Ø It is economical to obtain and distribute
Ø The water-bearing stratum provides a natural storage
at the point of intake.
Disadvantages of ground water sources
Ø often have high in mineral content
Ø It usually requires pumping 38
Hydrologic Cycle

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The Hydrologic Cycle

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River one eg. of surface source water

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Well one eg. Ground surface water source

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Both Surface and Ground water

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Factors Governing the Selection of
particular Sources of Water
• The Quantity of Available Water.
• The Quality of available water
• Distance of the source of supply
• General Topography of the intervening area
• Elevation of the source of supply

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 2.1 Ground Water Hydraulics
• Groundwater takes 0.62% of the total water in the
hydrosphere
• 0.31% of the total water in the hydrosphere has
depth less than 800m
• sand, gravel, and sandstones good aquifers
• Aquifer is a water-bearing formation that is
saturated and that transmits large quantities of water.
• Clay’s ability to transmit water is very poor due to
the very small particle sizes (< 0.0004 mm).

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 GROUNDWATER FLOW

• Groundwater flows in the direction of

decreasing head.
• Equipotential lines lines showing points
having equal pressure.
• Flow direction is perpendicular to
equipotential lines

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 HYDRAULICS OF WATER WELLS
• Wells: A well is defined as an artificial hole or
pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian
population has to depend on wells for its
water supply.

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Con…….

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 Infiltration gallery

• Horizontal wells that collect water over

practically their entire lengths.
• Simple means of obtaining naturally filtered
water

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Example
1.Compute the discharge of a tube well of diameter40cm. The
thickness of aquifer layer is 10m and the drawdown is 5m.
Radius of circle of influence is 150m and permeability as 30m3
per unit area per day.
2. The diameter of a tube well is 25cm and it is constructed in an
aquifer of thickness 15m. The influence radius of the well is
112.5m. If the permeability of the soil per unit area per day is
30m3. Calculate the drawdown when yield of the well is 200m3
per day?
3. 600m 3 /day of water is to be obtained from a proposed
infiltration gallery, which is placed at 6m depth from sub-surface
water table. The coefficient of permeability of the soil aquifer is
100m/day. Find the length of the gallery if the drawdown in the
gallery on pumping is not to exceed 4m. The radius of influence
may be assumed to be 100m. 50
 CHAPTER THREE
Collection and Distribution
• Deals with the transport of water from the
source through the treatment plant to the
consumers.
• It requires
▫ intake structures,
▫ transmission lines,
▫ distribution pipe networks and
▫ other essential accessories.

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 INTAKES STRUCTURE
Intakes
• Intakes are used to collect water from for water
work from varies sources.
• The sources may be lakes, rivers, reservoirs or
canals.
• The intake word for each type of source is
designed separately according to its
requirements and situations.
 Key requirements of intake
• Reliability
• Of adequate size to provide the required quantity of
water.
• Located to obtain the best quality water.
• Protected from objects that may damage equipment.
• Easy to inspect and maintain.
• Designed to minimize damage to aquatic life.
• Located to minimize navigational hazards.

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 Location for intake structures
• Avoid wastewater discharge points and pollution
hazard
•Enable withdrawal of water from a range of levels
•Magnitude and direction of stream or current
velocities should not affect the function and stability of
the intake structure.
•Reliable access roads and power sources should be
available
•should be near to treatment plant
•Major environmental impacts should be avoided
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 CON…
The main purpose of intake structure

• To admit and regulate water from source.

• To prevent the clogging of the entrance with the float

debris

Types of intake

» Reservoir intake

» River intake

» Canal intake

» Lake intake
Reservoir intake CON…..
• The water impounding reservoir is likely to vary in quality
at various level.
• Making it usually desirable take water from about a meter
from the surface.
 River intake
River intake are especially like to need to screens to exclude large
floating mater which might injure pumps.
• River intake is located inside of the river so as to gate adequate
supply in all seasons.
• Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side of
the river, where it is comparatively of better quality.

The different types of river intake

• Weir intake
• Intake wells
• Pipe intake
• Intake well approach channel
 CON….
Weir intake
• This is consists of a small weir constructed across a river so
that river water level in the dry season should be sufficient to
provide water.
Intake well
• This consist of concrete masonry well located in side of the
river.
Pipe intake
• The consist of number of pipe laid horizontally across the
river.
Intake well approach channel
• In cases of very wide river, it is impractical and inadvisable to
construct an intake well in the middle of it.
 Canal intake
• The consists of concrete well in the canal.
• An inlet pipe laid in the canal bed leads in to the well.
 CON….
Lake intake
» Submersible rectangular chamber
» Constructed at the bed of the lake below
LWL
• The top cover of chamber consists of
several holes having to prevent aquatic life
weed to the chamber
Multi-level intake

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Tower Intake

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Submerged Lake Intake

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Unprotected river intake

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Pumped river intake

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 Design Criteria for intakes
• Design capacity = Q max-day
• Intake velocity should be ≤ 8 cm/s
• vertical positions intake ports should be such
that good quality water is withdrawn.
• Locate the top intake port at a distance not
less than 2 m from the normal water level and
the bottom port at least 1 m above the
bottom

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 Intake design
• Volume of pump detention time. A detention
time of at least 20min is recommended.
• At least two pumps to avoid interruption of
service.
• Height (with a freeboard about 0.5m)
• Location of the bottom of the pump should be
> 1.5m below the lowest stream level or > 1m
below stream bed.

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 Con’t
Ø Proper design of the intake structure is one way of
achieving preliminary treatment.
Ø It should be located in such a way that rolling debris at
the bottom is prevented from entering via the intake.
Ø Bar Screens are provided to screen out larger size
floating and suspended materials.
Ø Sometimes two filters are provided successively for
coarse and fine screening.
Ø Multiple level intakes (low level intake in the dry
season; to avoid algae at the top and high level intake in
the wet season to avoid suspended solids at the bottom)
are provided in lakes and reservoirs
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 Example1
üDesign coarse screen and bell mouth intake for
a city of 80,000 persons drawing water from a
channel which runs for 10hrs in a day with
depth of 1.8m. Also calculate the head loss in
intake conduit if the treatment plant is ½ km
away . Draw a net sketch of the canal intake
assume average consumption per person
=150l/d. Assume the velocity through the
screen & the bell mouth to be less than or equal
to 16cm/s & 32cm/s respectively. Assume any
reasonable missing data.
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 Example 2: Canal Intake design
1. Design course screen and bell mouth canal
intake for a city of 75,000 persons, drawing
water from a canal which runs only for 10 hours
a day with a depth of 1.5m. Also calculate the
head loss in the intake conduit if the treatment
w o r k s a r e 0 . 2 5 k m a w ay . G i v e n av e ra g e
consumption per person=150l/day. Assume the
velocity through the course screens and bell
mouth to be less than16cm/sec and 32cm/sec
respectively. 74
Example 1 Solution

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Example 1 Solution

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Con……

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Con…..

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 Assignment=4
1. Design two circular penstocks with screens of river
intake for a city of 80,000 persons drawing water from
a river with a depth of 1.8m. Also calculate the Head
loss in the intake conduit if the treatment works are ½
km away. Draw a neat sketch of the river intake.
Assume average consumption per person=160l/day.
Assume the velocity through the circular penstocks to
be less than 8cm/s and also use CH=100 for calculating
the head loss.

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River Intake

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 Pipelines and appurtenances
The selection of pipe materials is based on
• carrying capacity
• strength
• ease of transportation and handling
• availability
• quality of water
• cost (initial and maintenance )
Pipe appurtenances
Gate Valves Air relief valves
Gate and butterfly valves

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 Distribution of pipe material
The types of pipe used to distribution water
Caste iron pipe (DCI) Plastic pipe(HDPE and PVC)
Asbestos cement pipe Steel pipe(GI and GS)
Copper pipe Lead pipe
Concrete pipe
Generally, the choice of pipe material is dependent on the
following factor
• characteristics of soil
• Chemical nature of the water
• Comparative cost of alternative pipe
• Weather condition of the area
• Geologic formation of the pipe route
• Expected internal and external pressure in the pipe
Different type of pipe

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 Caste iron pipe (DCI)
Advantage Disadvantages
• The cost is moderate • Carrying capacity decrease
with increase in life
• The pipe area easily joined
• The pipe became heavy
• The pipe are strong and and uneconomical
durable
Plastic pipe(HDPE and PVC)
Advantage Disadvantages
• The coefficient of expansion
• The pipe are cheap for plastics is high, the pipe
• The pipe are flexible are less resistant to heat
• The pipe free from corrosion
• The pipe are easy to bend, join
and install
 Assignment=5
1. Write advantage and disadvantage of
(Asbestos cement pipe ; Steel pipe(GI and GS);
Copper pipe ; Lead pipe and Concrete pipe) ?

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DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS

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 Purpose of Distribution reservoirs
• Equalizing supply and demand
• Providing water during source or pump failure
• Providing water to meet fire demands
• Increase detention times
• Increasing operating convenience
• Leveling out pumping requirements
• Maintaining pressure levels within acceptable
ranges
• Blending water sources 89
Equalizing demand and supply

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 Distribution reservoir types

1.Ground reservoir

2.Elevated reservoir

3.Stand pipes reservoir

Can be made of
– Concrete or masonry
– Steel tank
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Elevated tank location

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 Con…
Accessories of service reservoirs
• Inlet pipe
• Ladder
• Manholes
• Outlet pipe
• Outflow
Ashish Agarwal
• Vent pipes
• Washout pipe
There are two shape of reservoirs
• Circular
• Rectangular
Accessories of Service Reservoirs
v Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water

v Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for
inspection and cleaning

v Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening

v Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning

v Outlet pipe: For the exit of water

v Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level

v Vent pipes : For free circulation of air

v Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir

v Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.

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 Con….
Formula:
Capacity Reservoir=Equalizing storage +
Emergency reserve (about 25%) + Fire storage.

Location of Reservoir must be:

• Aesthetics
• Ventilation
• Security and safety
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 Reservoir capacity

Size (m3) Depth of water

(m)
Up to 3500 2.5 – 3.5
3500 – 15 000 3.5 – 5.0
Over 15 000 5.0 – 7.0
For rectangular concrete tank

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 Example=1
1. Design a service reservoir if Qday-max is 2400
m3. Two pumps are working at constant rate of
150 m3/hr. Determine for how many hours
pumping should be done.
• Solution
Step 1. Determine pumping hours Pumping hour
= Qdmax/(2 x pumping capacity)
= 2400/(2 x 150)
= 8 hrs for each pump
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 Con…..
Step 2. Determine reservoir capacity Balancing
requirement Pumping is done for a total of 16 hrs =
2400 m3
But demand for 16 hrs is 2400 x 16/24 = 1600 m3
Excess that needs to be stored = 2400-1600 = 800
m3

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 Con…
Emergency requirement = 0.25 x 800 = 200 m3
•Ignore fire demand = 0
Total reservoir volume = 1000 m3
Provide 2 reservoirs of each 500 m3
•Take depth of 3.0 m
•X-sectional area = 500/3.0 = 166.67 m2
•Taking circular tank diameter = 14.57 m

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 Example-2
2.A Town with a Population of 100,000 is to be
supplied with water daily at 200 liters per head.
The Variation in demand is as follows
• 6 am – 9am = 40% of total
• 9am - 12 noon = 10% of total
• 12noon – 3Pm = 10% of total
• 3Pm – 6PM = 15% of total
• 6Pm – 9Pm = 25% of total

• Determine the capacity of the service reservoir assuming pumping to be at

uniform rate & the period of pumping to be from 6am – 4Pm. Neglect fire
demand.

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Solution: -

Dd= Q day = 100,000*200 L/head = 20Ml for ( 6am-9pm)

SS= Q day = 100,000*200 L/head = 20Ml for ( 6am-4pm)10 hrs = 20ML/10hrs = 2 ML/hrs

Period Hours Rate of demand Dd in ML comm dd. SS ML/h Comm ss Excess dd Excess ss
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) col (5)–(7)=+ (8) col (7)–(5)= + (9)

6am – 9am 3 40% of 20ML 8 8 6 6 2 _

9am-12noon 3 10% of 20ML 2 10 6 12 _ 2

12noon-3Pm 3 10% of 20ML 2 12 6 18 _ 6

3Pm-6Pm 3 15% of 20ML 3 15 2 20 _ 5

6Pm-9Pm 3 25% of 20ML 5 20 Nill 20 _ _

Total storage required = Max Excess dd + Max. Excess ss

= 2ML + 6ML = 8ML
Total Volume required = storage + 25% storage( Emergency) + Fire demand
= 8ML + 25% 8ML + 0= 10ML Answer
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 Assignment=6
1.A water supply system is proposed to be designed
for a small town which has a maximum daily demand
of 515 m3/d. Estimate storage requirement if
pumping is done for 12 hrs only (from 2 to 14). Use
the following demand variation data.

Time (hr) 0-4 4-8 8 - 12 12 - 16 16 - 20 20 - 24

Demand as % of total 6.7 9.2 20.8 28.3 25 10
daily demand

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 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Depending upon the level of the source of water and

the city, topography of the area, and other local
considerations, Gravitational system,

Methods of distribution system

1. Gravity system

2. Pumping without storage (Direct pump)

3. Pumping with storage(pump + gravity)

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1. Gravity system

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 CON…
2. Pumping without storage (Direct pump)

3. Pumping with storage(pump + gravity)

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 Water Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are long pipes with no
withdrawals
• Gravity main .Pumping main

ho + Zo – ZL = H
ho = H + ZL – Zo (Head loss)
(Head loss + residual pressure)

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Gravity and Pumping system

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Layout of distribution systems
Pipe networks :
Primary or arterial mains from the pumping
stations and from storage facilities to the various
districts of the city. valve at intervals of not ≤ 1.5 km
Secondary lines or Sub-mains run from one
primary main to another located at spacing of 2-4
blocks
Small distribution mains or branches Supply
water to every consumer and to the fire hydrants
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 Con….
FOUR TYPES OF PIPE NETWORK LAYOUT OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM GENERALLY FOLLOWS
THE ROAD PATTERN:

1. dead end system or branch system,

2. gridiron system,
3. ring system, and
4. radial system.

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112
1. Dead end system or branch system
or Tree system

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2. Grid Iron system

– In this system the main line, the sub main line

and branch line are inter connected.

– Fire circulation of water through the pipe line

– It is suitable for town or city having rectangular

layout of roads
 CON…
3. Circular or Ring system
• This system, the main water line is divided into two
parte direction lift to right
• It is sweet able for well planned town or city

4. Radial system
• This system the town or city divided into various circular
or square zones distribution reservoir are planed at
central of each zone
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117
 Assignment=7
1. Write the advantage and disadvantage of this
network….

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 Design of distribution systems
• Design flow: Max day demand + Fire demand
• Minimum main sizes:
• generally:150mm (6 in);
• high value districts: 200mm (8 in);
• major streets: 305mm (12 in);
• domestic flows only: 100mm (4 in);
• small communities: 50-75 mm

• Velocity:
• Minimum = 0.6 - 1 m/s;
• Maximum = 2.5 m/s

• Pressure:
• Minimum value is 140 kPa (14 m)
• Maximum not to exceed 410 kPa (41 m).

• But mainly depends on pressure ratings of the pipes and

appurtenances used and regulatory requirements
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 Pressure zones

Pressure reducing valves (PRV). 120

Pressure reducing valves (PRV).

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Pipeline layout options

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 Pipe Network Geometry
iL = jL + kL - 1 iL = no. of pipes
jL = no. of nodes
kL = no. of loops

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Con…..

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**Simple DS Design procedures **
Assign the required demand at each node
i. Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
ii. Assume possible pipe diameters
iii. Calculate the head loss through the pipes
iv. Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
v. Compare this terminal pressure with the desired
minimum and maximum pressures.
vi. If the required condition is not satisfied,
vii. then repeat steps (ii) through (vi) until the required
conditions are met.

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 Design methods for networks
i. Trial and error method
ii. Hardy Cross Method (in flow=out flow)

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Example
Q1. A dead end type of a distribution pipe network has
been adopted for supplying water to a certain zone of
the city having different blocks and their populations,
as shown in Fig.1 below. The rate of supply is 200 litres
per head per day .The R.L. of the bottom of the
elevated storage tank is 225 R.L. of points A, B, C, D, etc
are 210, 200 and 195m respectively. If the minimum
pressure head of water is to be 12m, Design suitable
size of pipes. AB and BC lengths are 500 and 400m
respectively. Assume maximum rate of demand to be
2.7 times the average demand

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132
 Example
ii. Hard-Cross Method
• Determine the discharge in each of the pipes
using Hard-Cross Method

In flow = Out flow

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2.Fig. below shows one of the circuits of a distribution
system, A city has a population of 100,000 is to be served.
Length AB,BC,CD,DE and AE=600,500,650,1196 and 200m
respectively.

The pressure at the start point A is 35m head of water and the min. pressure desired
at the point D is 20m head of water. Design the various pipes of this circuit by
assuming the per capita demand to be 190 l/p/day and the peak rate of demand for
design for design of distribution system as 1.8 times the avg. assume v=1.3m/s. 134
 Con’t
Solution
Q day-max=1.8x190l/d=342l/d=0.004l/s
At point B=15%x100,000x0.004l/s=60l/s
At point C=10%x100,000x0.004l/s=40l/s
At point D along CD=10%x100,000x0.004l/s=40l/s
At point D along ED=40%x100,000x0.004l/s=160l/s
At point E=25%x100,000x0.004l/s=100l/s
Total=400l/s
Total discharge inflow required at A= 400l/s
i.e ABCD=140 and AED=260l/s

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 Con’t
• Calculate the diameter/size of pipe by using
Hazen-William formula or Nomogram graph
for Cost iron pipes.
hf=2.112x10 -3 x L x Q 1.85
D 4.87
Follow Page 88 procedure

136
137
2.Fig. below shows one of the circuits of a distribution
system, A city has a population of 400,000 is to be served.
Length AB,BC,CD,DE and AE=40,80,90,100 and 60m
respectively.

The pressure at the start point A is 26m head of water and the min. pressure desired
at the point D is 12m head of water. Design the various pipes of this circuit by
assuming the per capita demand to be 60 l/p/day and the peak rate of demand for
design for design of distribution system as 1.67 times the avg. assume v=1.3m/s.138
3.A study is conducted in order to meet the demand of
a rural town. The selected site for service reservoir is
located at elevation of 2031m and planned to
distribute the water to a town as shown below in
Figure 2. The elevations of each node are A = 1990m,
B=1980m and elevation of C = 1971m.Calculate the
size of pipe from Reservoir to A, AB and BC by
considering the minimum free head at Junctions
must be greater than 10m and less than 80mand also
check the velocity.

139
Use domestic demand 70 l/cap/day, For water point 30 l/cap/day, For
industrial area of 500hectar; 150 l/ha/day, for school of 500 students
60l/student/day, for a hospital having 60 beds 75l/bed/day, and for
commercial area of 700ha; 120 l/ha/day.
Consider Peak Hour Factor =2.0, Minimum Velocity =0.6m/sec and
maximum Velocity = 2.5m/sec.

140
141
 CHAPTER FOUR
Pumps and pumping stations

The operation of lifting water or any fluid is

called pumping
Pump, a mechanical machine, is used for lifting
water or any fluid to a higher elevations or at
higher pressures.

142
 PURPOSES OF PUMPING
• To increase the water pressure at certain points in
the distribution system.
• To lift treated water to elevated storage tanks flow
automatically under gravity into distribution system.
• To lift raw river water to carry it to treatment plant.
• To lift water available from wells to an elevated
storage tank in stages.
• To pump water directly into the distribution system.
• To take out water from basins, sumps, tanks etc.

143
144
 TYPES OF PUMPS
Classification based on mechanical principle of operation
(i) Displacement pumps
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Air lift pumps
(iv) Miscellaneous pumps

Classification based on type of power required

(i) Steam engine pumps
(ii) Diesel engine pumps
(iii) Electrically driven pumps
Classification based on the type of service called for
(i) Low lift pumps
(ii) High lift pumps
(iii) Deep well pumps
(iv) Booster pumps 145
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
• Roto dynamic pumps which convert Mechanical
energy into Hydraulic energy by centripetal force on
the liquid

146
Centrifugal Pump

147
Pump……

148
 POWER AND EFFICIENCY
• The work performed by a pump is a function of the
total head and the weight of the liquid pumped in a
given time period.
• Work done by the pump = W x H m-kg/sec = ϒ x Q x
H m-kg/sec
• Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the
actual horsepower delivered to the pump shaft.
• Pump output or hydraulic horsepower (WHP) is the
liquid horsepower delivered by the pump

149


Head, Power and efficiency of pumps

• HEAD…………..H=Hs+Hd+Hl(Darcy)
• Work done=γQH where γ =unit weight of water in Kg/m3
Q=discharge to be pumped in m3/s
• The water horsepower of the pump is then given
by: W.H.P=
• Brake horse power of the pump (B.H.P) is given by

150
 Example
1.Water has to be supplied to a town with
100,000 population at the rate of 150l/c/d from
a river 2000m away. The difference in elevation
b/n the lowest water level and the reservoir is
36m. If the demand has to be supplied in 8hrs.
Assume max. dd. f=0.03,v=2.4m/s and efficiency
of pump 80%. Find Size of main, BHP and
running cost per month if the energy charges
are 35 cents per kwh.

151
 Example
Solution (assume use high lift pump)
Qmax=3*100,000*150l/8hrs=1.57m3/s b/s HLP= Q-3*P*C l/day *day/8hr …..1day=24hr
i. Diameter of pipe
Q=VA……….D2=4*1.57/3.14*2.4=0.912m= 1m
Adjust velocity Va=4*Q/3.14*D2= 2 m/s
H=h+hL
H=36+12.25=48.25m

II. BHP

BHP= 1000*1.57*48.25/75*0.8=1,262.55hp
………………..1HP=736W=0.736KW

iii. Cost per month

Total energy=1,262.55*0.736kw=929.23 kw
Energy per month=929.23kw*8 hr/day*30 day*35cents/kwh
=7,805.54 cents/month= 78.05 Eth birr/month
152
 Assignment=9
1.A centrifugal pump driven by an electric motor lifts
water through a total height of 50meters from the
reservoir to the discharge end. The pump efficiency is
77% and the motor efficiency is 85%. The lift is through
300meters length of 10cm diameter pipe and the
pumping rate is 1500l/minute. If f=0.025, and power
costs 25 units per kwh, what is the cost of power for
pumping four million liters of water.

153
2.Population of a city is 120,000 and rate of water
supply per head per day is 200 litres, work out
i)Discharge of pumping ii) Size of the main iii)
Total pumping head iv) Water Horse power v)
Brake horse Powers. Following data is given;
• Length of rising main=2000m
• Maximum rate =1.5 times the average
• Hours of pumping =16
• R.L. of bottom of well =100
• R.L. of low water level=102
• R.L. of full supply level of reservoir=125
• R.L. of pump =107
• Friction factor =0.03
• Efficiency of pump set =70%
• Velocity in the pipe =2.4m/s
• Specific weight of water =9810N/m3
154
 CHAPTER FOUR
Pumps and pumping stations

The operation of lifting water or any fluid is

called pumping
Pump, a mechanical machine, is used for lifting
water or any fluid to a higher elevations or at
higher pressures.

155
 PURPOSES OF PUMPING
• To increase the water pressure at certain points in
the distribution system.
• To lift treated water to elevated storage tanks flow
automatically under gravity into distribution system.
• To lift raw river water to carry it to treatment plant.
• To lift water available from wells to an elevated
storage tank in stages.
• To pump water directly into the distribution system.
• To take out water from basins, sumps, tanks etc.

156
157
 TYPES OF PUMPS
Classification based on mechanical principle of operation
(i) Displacement pumps
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Air lift pumps
(iv) Miscellaneous pumps

Classification based on type of power required

(i) Steam engine pumps
(ii) Diesel engine pumps
(iii) Electrically driven pumps
Classification based on the type of service called for
(i) Low lift pumps
(ii) High lift pumps
(iii) Deep well pumps
(iv) Booster pumps 158
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
• Roto dynamic pumps which convert Mechanical
energy into Hydraulic energy by centripetal force on
the liquid

159
Centrifugal Pump

160
Pump……

161
 POWER AND EFFICIENCY
• The work performed by a pump is a function of the
total head and the weight of the liquid pumped in a
given time period.
• Work done by the pump = W x H m-kg/sec = ϒ x Q x
H m-kg/sec
• Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the
actual horsepower delivered to the pump shaft.
• Pump output or hydraulic horsepower (WHP) is the
liquid horsepower delivered by the pump

162


Head, Power and efficiency of pumps

• HEAD…………..H=Hs+Hd+Hl(Darcy)
• Work done=γQH where γ =unit weight of water in Kg/m3
Q=discharge to be pumped in m3/s
• The water horsepower of the pump is then given
by: W.H.P=
• Brake horse power of the pump (B.H.P) is given by

163
 Example
1.Water has to be supplied to a town with
100,000 population at the rate of 150l/c/d from
a river 2000m away. The difference in elevation
b/n the lowest water level and the reservoir is
36m. If the demand has to be supplied in 8hrs.
Assume max. dd. f=0.03,v=2.4m/s and efficiency
of pump 80%. Find Size of main, BHP and
running cost per month if the energy charges
are 35 cents per kwh.

164
 Example
Solution (assume use high lift pump)
Qmax=3*100,000*150l/8hrs=1.57m3/s b/s HLP= Q-3*P*C l/day *day/8hr …..1day=24hr
i. Diameter of pipe
Q=VA……….D2=4*1.57/3.14*2.4=0.912m= 1m
Adjust velocity Va=4*Q/3.14*D2= 2 m/s
H=h+hL
H=36+12.25=48.25m

II. BHP

BHP= 1000*1.57*48.25/75*0.8=1,262.55hp
………………..1HP=736W=0.736KW

iii. Cost per month

Total energy=1,262.55*0.736kw=929.23 kw
Energy per month=929.23kw*8 hr/day*30 day*35cents/kwh
=7,805.54 cents/month= 78.05 Eth birr/month
165
 Assignment=9
1.A centrifugal pump driven by an electric motor lifts
water through a total height of 50meters from the
reservoir to the discharge end. The pump efficiency is
77% and the motor efficiency is 85%. The lift is through
300meters length of 10cm diameter pipe and the
pumping rate is 1500l/minute. If f=0.025, and power
costs 25 units per kwh, what is the cost of power for
pumping four million liters of water.

166
2.Population of a city is 120,000 and rate of water
supply per head per day is 200 litres, work out
i)Discharge of pumping ii) Size of the main iii)
Total pumping head iv) Water Horse power v)
Brake horse Powers. Following data is given;
• Length of rising main=2000m
• Maximum rate =1.5 times the average
• Hours of pumping =16
• R.L. of bottom of well =100
• R.L. of low water level=102
• R.L. of full supply level of reservoir=125
• R.L. of pump =107
• Friction factor =0.03
• Efficiency of pump set =70%
• Velocity in the pipe =2.4m/s
• Specific weight of water =9810N/m3
167
 CHAPTER FIVE
Building water supply

BUILDING WATER SUPPLY

168
 Purpose
Provide potable water supply to each fixture from water sources
For sanitation and fire protection

169
 Types of System
• Direct connection from the main
• Pumped system

170
Direct connection from the main
Adequate pressure in municipal main to fed
elevated tank any time of day
1. Minimum duration of pressure to feed
elevated tank=6hours/day
2. Flow in pipe during this period =daily water
consumption in building
3. up-feed pipe must be sized to sustain an
internal pressure of not less than 70Kpa.

171
 Pumped system
Inadequate pressure in municipal main to elevated tank
1. Use storage tank on ground floor or basement.
2. Use pump to lift water from storage tank to elevated tank on roof
of the building.
3. Determine storage tank capacity by using supply and demand
curve.
4. The up feed must designed to leave a residual pressure of 70 Kpa
at the discharge to the elevated tank.
5. The pressure at the fixture should be close to 70Kpa but not less
than 28kpa.
6. The volume of elevated tank =the volume of storage tank
7. The min. size of pipe in the plumbing system should be 13mm
8. Flow velocity should not exceed 3m/sec to prevent line noise
172
 Standard of water Supply to Building

Table 6.1 Flow Rate and required pressure for common fixtures

Fixture type Flow rate (l/min) Flow pressure(Kpa)

Ordinary Basin faucet 11.4 56
Sink faucet 17 35
Bath tube faucet 27.7 35
Shower head 25.7 84
w.c. (valve type) 114 175
w.c. (tank type) 18.90 35

Table 6.2 Flow and pressure requirements of common fixtures,(DIN)

Types of fixture Rate of flow(l/min) Out let pressure Weight in fixture
f a u c e t 1 0 0 % unit
open(Kpa)
L a v a t o r y f a u c e t 75 28 0.25
single
Sink faucet 10.5 35 0.50
Shower Head 10.5 21 0.50
Tank type (w.c.) 7.5 35 0.25 173
Valve type (w.c) 36 175 6.0
 Table6. 3 Estimation of demand load from fixture units (US)

Fixture unit Demand load (l/min)

Flush tank Flush valve
10 34.1 94.6
20 45.4 132.5
30 75.7 153.5
40 83.3 177.9
50 113.3 196.8
60 121.1 212.3
70 143.8 223.3
80 151.4 232.8
90 159.0 246.0
100 170.3 264.6

Table 6.4 The Nominal size (mm) Pipe

Nominal size(mm) Normal test and M i n i m u m t e s t

o p e r a t i n g flows(l/min)
flows(l/min)
19.1(3/4”) 7.6-128.7 1.9
25.4(1”) 11.4-200.6 2.8
38.1(1.5”) 18.9-378.5 5.7
50.8(2”) 30.3-605.6 7.6
76.2(3”) 60.6-1192.3 15.1
174
 Table 6.5 demand load of fixture units (U.S)

Fixture or group Occupancy Type of control We i g h t i n f i x t u r e

units
Water closet Public Flush valve 10
Water closet Public Flush tank 5
Wall urinal Public Flush valve 5
Wall urinal Public Flush tank 3
Lavatory Public Faucet 2
Bath tub Public Faucet 4
Shower head Public Mixing valve 4
Kitchen sink Hotel or restaurant Faucet 4
Water closet Private Flush valve 6
Water closet Private Flush tank 3
Lavatory(wash basin) Private Faucet 1
Bath tub Private Faucet 2
Shower head Private Mixing valve 2
Bath room group Private Flush valve for w.c 8
Bath room group Private Flush tank for w.c 6
Separate shower Private Mixing valve 2
Kitchen sink Private Faucet 2
Laundary tray(1-3) Private Faucet 3
Combination fixture Private Faucet 3

175
EXAMPLE 1
1.Determine the total weight of fixture units and the demand load in
residential building with the following fixtures using US and DIN
specifications; 3water closets (tank type); 3 lavatory basins; 2 kitchen
sinks; and 2 shower heads.
Solution
(U.S. Standard)
a)Total fixture weight(3x3)+(3x1)+(2x2)+(2x2)=20

b) Demand =45.4l/min=0.76l/s  from table 6.3

(DIN standard)
a. Total fixture units(3x0.25)+(3x0.25)+(2x0.5)+(2x0.5)=3.50
b. Demand q=0.25√n=0.47l/s

176
177
 Effective pipe length
=Measure pipe length + equivalent pipe length

178
Example=2

179
 Exercise
1. Design the distribution system of the five story building.
Assuming that:
o The number of occupant=180
o The per capita water consumption=150l/c/d
o The daily pumping schedule =1.5 hrs
o The equivalent length of pipe from the street main to ground level storage=30m
o The height of the building =25m
o The min. water pressure in the street main =220kpa

Calculate
i. Volume of GL tank
ii. Design elevated tank
iii. Capacity of pump
iv. Down-feed pipe
v. Amount of WW discharge from building
180
 BUILDING
SANITARY INSTALLATION

181
182
183
 Assignment=10
1.Design the distribution system of the three story dwelling has the
following fixture using US specifications; 3water closets (tank type), 3
lavatory (wash) basins, 2 kitchen sinks and 2 shower head; the daily
pumping schedule=1.5 hours, the height of building =15m: a disk meter
measures the flows.
Find
– Demand load
– Size of meters
– Design Elevated tank
– Design Capacity of pump (efficiency=80%)
– Running cost per month if the energy charges are 45 cents per kwh
– Down-feed pipe(hL)
– Discharged waste water from this building
184
 CHAPTER SIX
DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND ITS DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
ØDrainage is defined as the process of water or waste
liquids flowing away from urban environment into the
ground or down pipes.
ØUrban environment mainly constituted of roads, houses
and green spaces.
ØUrban drainage may be used to describe the process of
collecting and transporting wastewater, rainwater/storm
water or a combination of both.
ØSewage is water-carried wastes, in either solution or
suspension, that is intended to flow away from a
community.
Ø Sewage is the mainly liquid waste containing some
solids produced by humans which typically consists of
washing water, faeces, urine, laundry waste and other
material from household and industry
Ø An artificial conduit or system of conduit that used to
remove sewage and provide drainage is called sewer
Ø Sewers are usually pipelines that begin with
connecting pipes from buildings to one or more
levels of larger underground horizontal mains,
which terminate at sewage treatment facilities.
Ø Vertical pipes, called manhole, connect the mains
to the surface.
Ø Sewers are generally gravity powered, though
pump may be used if necessary.
187
188
 URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
A. STORM SEWER SYSTEM
[Storm Drains/Stormwater Drains/SurfaceWater System]
Ø Storm sewer is designed to drain excess rainfall
and groundwater from paved streets, parking lots,
sidewalks, and roofs.
Ø Storm sewers vary in design from small residential
dry wells to large municipal systems.
Ø Storm sewers are present on most motorways,
freeways and other busy roads, as well as towns
in areas which experience heavy rainfall, flooding
and coastal towns which experience regular
storms.
Ø Ideally, storm sewers should be separate from
sanitary sewers, though in some places the runoff
from storm sewers is subjected to sewage
treatment plant when there is sufficient capacity to
spare.
Ø Most drains have a single large exit at their point of
discharge (often covered by a grating to prevent
access by humans and exit by debris) into either a
canal, river, lake, reservoir, ocean and spread out
into smaller branches as they move up into their
catchment area.
• Storm sewers may discharge into individual dry
wells or
man-made excavations (recharge basins).
 B. SANITARY SEWER SYSTEM
[Foul Sewer]
Ø Sanitary sewer is a type of underground carriage
system for transporting sewage from houses or
industry to treatment or disposal.
Ø Sanitary lines generally consist of laterals, mains,
and manholes (or other various forms of traps).
Ø There are two types of sanitary sewer systems:
1. SEPARATE SEWER SYSTEM
Ø A separate sewer system is a type of sewer
system in which one pipe system carries wastewater
and another separate pipe system carries stormwater.
2. COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM
Ø Is a type of sewer system which provides partially
separated channels for sanitary sewage and
stormwater runoff.
Ø This allows the sanitary sewer system to provide
backup capacity for the runoff sewer when runoff
volumes are unusually high, but it is an antiquated
system that is vulnerable to sanitary sewer
overflow during peak rainfall events.
Separate Sewer System
194
195
Combined Sewer System
197
 DRAIN LAYOUT

36M

RESIDENTIAL AREA (A1) COMMERCIAL AREA (A2)

36M 106M
121M

COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL AREA (A3) AREA (A4)

135M 36M
199
200
201
202
 URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN
Peak Flow Analysis
Ø Estimation of peak flow rates from small and mid-size
watersheds is a common application of engineering
hydrology.
Ø The UH procedures should be used when storage and
runoff volume considerations influence the design
(reservoirs or storm water detention ponds)
Ø Simpler approaches are justified when designing small
hydraulic structures such as culverts or storm drainage
systems.
Ø For these design problems, peak flows usually provide
information to determine the appropriate pipe size.
Simple Peak Flow Formulas
Fanning Formula
Q = CA5/6
Where Q = peak flow (cfs)
A = area (sq.mi.)
C = constant (equal to 200 for
Myers Formula
Q = 100pA1/2
Where Q = max flow (cfs)
p = Myers rating
A = area (sq.mi.)
Ø For the above formulas, there is no attempt to
consider rainfall amounts or intensities as parameter,
or to relate the value of q to any probability or return
period.
Ø They provide an upper limit of Q that would represent
an extremely conservative design flow value.
Peak Flow from Gaged Data
Ø Most designs are based on a return period (highway
culverts: 50 year return period)
Ø A frequency analysis using peak flows from gaged
stream flow would provide desired peak flow.
Ø Drawbacks: gaged data may not exist, watershed may
have changed land use, gaged data may not be at the
location of design.
Rational Method
Ø Developed in 1800s in England as the first
dimensionally correct equation.
Ø Used by 90% of engineers still today.
Ø Equation assumes that Q is a function of rainfall
intensity applied uniformly over the watershed for a
duration D.
Ø Equation also assumes that frequency of Q is equal to
frequency of rainfall intensity.
Ø The proper rainfall duration is equal to the time of
concentration.
Ø The equation is
Q = 1.008CIA
Where Q = peak flow (cfs) (
C = dimensionless coefficient
I = average rainfall intensity (in/hr)
A = catchment area (acre)
1.008 = unit conversion factor
The conversion factor is usually ignored.
What is needed?
1) Time of concentration
2) A set of rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curve (IDF
curve)
3) Drainage area size
4) An estimate of the coefficient C
Ø C is know as runoff coefficient and can be found for
the different land uses
Ø If land use is mixed, you can calculate a composite C
value as follows:
C = (CAAA+CBAB)/(AA+AB) or
C = (CiAi)/(Ai)
Where CA,CB = C values for land use A and B
AA,AB = areas of land use A and B
Ci, Ai = C and A for land use i
209
 Runoff Coefficient

o Coefficient that represents

the fraction of rainfall that
becomes runoff.
o Depends on type of
surface.

210
Runoff Coefficient depends on:

• Character of soil
• Shape of drainage area
• Antecedent moisture conditions
• Slope of watershed
• Amount of impervious soil
• Land use
• Duration
• Intensity

211
Runoff Coefficient - urban

212
 Runoff Coefficient
• When a drainage area has distinct parts with
different C values
• Use the weighted average

C = C1A1 + C2A2 + ….. + CnAn

ΣAi

213
 Watershed Area
• Topographic maps
• Aerial photos
• Digital elevation models
• Drainage maps
• Field reviews

214
215
 Intensity
• Average intensity for a selected frequency and duration
over drainage area for duration of storm
• Based on “design” event (i.e. 50-year storm)
– Overdesign is costly
– Underdesign may be inadequate
• Duration is important
• Based on values of Tc and T
• Tc = time of concentration
• T = recurrence interval or design frequency

216
 TIME OF CONCENTRATION
The time of concentration (tc) is the time required for water to flow from the
hydraulically most remote point of the drainage area to the point under investigation.
Time of concentration is an important variable in many hydrologic methods, including
the Rational and Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly SCS) procedures.
For the same size watershed, the shorter the tc, the larger the peak discharge.

1. Kirpich’s Equation

Kirpich’s Equation is an empirical watershed equation based on data which accounted

for length, slope and soil cover. It derives from work to determine the rates of runoff
from small agricultural watersheds. The Equation is considered applicable to
watersheds from 1 ha to 80 ha. Kirpich’s Equation is expressed as follows:

Where:
tc = time of concentration, hours
L = length of the longest waterway from the point in question to the basin divide, km
H = difference in elevation between the point in question and the basin divide (omitting drops due to gully overfalls,
waterfalls, etc.), m
217
Kirpich’s Equation works fairly well for natural, rural basins with well-
defined channels, for overland flow on bare earth, and for mowed earth
roadside channels. Using the Equation, a paved basin and a forested one
will have identical times of concentration if the lengths and reliefs are
the same. Common sense dictates that this cannot occur; therefore, the
Equation should be adjusted if it is used elsewhere using the following
guidelines:
ØFor overland flow on grassed surfaces, multiply tc by 2.0.
ØFor overland flow on concrete or asphaltic surfaces, multiply tc by 0.4.
ØFor flow in concrete-lined channels, multiply tc by 0.2.

218
2. Federal Aviation Equation (FAA)
For design conditions that do not involve complex drainage
conditions, the Federal Aviation Equation (FAA, 1970) can be used to
estimate overland flow time. The following Equation was developed
from airport drainage data, and it is probably best suited for small
drainage areas with fairly homogeneous surfaces. For each drainage
area, the distance is determined from the inlet to the most remote
point in the tributary area. From a topographic map, the average
slope is determined for the same distance.

Where:
= overland flow travel time, minutes
L = overland flow path length, m
S = slope of overland flow path, decimal
C = Rational Method runoff coefficient (from table)
219
 IDF Curve

Intensity
(mm/hr)
Return
Period/ years

Duration
I (mm/hr)…A(m2)…Q (m3/s)
 Example 1

A storm drain system

consisting of two inlets and
pipe is to be designed using
rational method. A schematic
of the system is shown.
Determine the peak flow
rates to be used in sizing the
two pipes and inlets.

Rainfall intensity (in/hr) as a

function of t is:
 Example 1

Size Inlet 1 and pipe 1:

Area A and B contribute

Take largest tc = 12 min

A = 5+3 = 8 acre
C = (5*0.2+3*0.3)/8 = 0.24
I = 30/(12+5)0.7 = 4.13 in/hr
Q = CIA = 0.24*4.13*8 = 7.9 cfs
 Example 1

Size Inlet 2:

Flow from area C contributes

Take tc = 8 min

A = 4 acre
C = 0.4
I = 30/(8+5)0.7 = 4.98 in/hr
Q = CIA = 0.4*4.98*4 = 8.0 cfs
 Example 1

Size pipe 2:

Flow from all areas

Take tc = 12+1 = 13 min

A = 5+4+3 = 12 acre
C = (5*0.2+4*0.4+3*0.3)/12
= 0.29
I = 30/(13+5)0.7 = 3.97 in/hr
Q = CIA = 0.29*3.97*12 = 13.8 cfs

*Note how tc is taken as the largest value (12

min) plus travel trough pipe1.
 HYDRAULIC DESIGN
Pressure Flow & Gravity Flow
1. Pressure Flow
Ø Is a flow condition in which the fluid moves through a
closed conduit as a result of source of energy, generally
external to the conduit proper, such as the energy
supplied by a pump or an external pressure head.
2. Gravity Flow
Ø Is a flow condition in which flow takes place due to the
energy within the conduit and flowing fluid, namely,
the force of gravity.
Ø Although gravity flow can take place in any pipe of
conduit, pressure flow can exist only in a closed conduit,
flowing full.
 OPEN CHANNEL
Ø Most open channel flow occur in drainage structures
and facilities.
Ø Various forms of open channel types such as man-
made ditch, natural stream, sewer etc.
Ø In case flow sewer system, open channel flow
conditions exist, even in a pipe.
Ø In connection with the sewer, the flow take place in a
pipe, the flow condition is nevertheless still of the
open channel since the water surface is unconfined/
open to the atmosphere. Only after the flow in a
channel reached the point where the pipe cross
section is 100% full are pressure-flow conditions
reached.
Ø Ditches and canals usually take on the form of
trapezoidal channels.
Ø Side slopes of the channels are usually chosen to be
compatible with the soil conditions and/or the lining
of the channel wall.
Ø The open channel flow can be:
1. Study and uniform flow
Ø Such flow are theoretical and are seldom encountered
in practice, but many sewers and other drainage
structures are designed on the assumption that steady
uniform flow prevails.
2. Unsteady flow
• The capacity of the flow varies along the length of the
channel reach.
3. Nonuniform flow
Ø The velocity flow varies along the reach
Ø These flows are often encountered and require
consideration in case of large sewers, ditches, and
natural streams.
Ø Many of the flow formulas were derived from
observation and study of open channel flow
conditions.
Ø The most commonly used formula is the Manning
formula because of its wide acceptance.
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 v = velocity of flow, m/s R = hydraulic radius,
v R s
n
S = slope of the energy gradient n = a roughness coefficient
Example 2
A concrete channel (n=0.013), rectangular in shape and
1.25 m wide, must carry water at a uniform rate of
flow of 2000 L/s and a depth of 0.75m.
Determine the required channel bottom slope for this
channel.
Solution A = 1.25x0.75 = 0.938 m2
P = 0.75+1.25+0.75 = 2.75 m
R = A/P = 0.938/2.75 = 0.341 m
Therefore, S = [(nQ)/(AR)2/3)]2
= [(0.013x2.0)/(0.938x0.341)2/3]
= 0.003
So, So = 0.003
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Example 3
A 500 mm asbestos cement sewer pipe (n=0.012) has
been installed with an invert slopes of 0.008.
Determine the capacity of flow when this pipe is flowing
half full. Assume the flow is uniform.
Solution A = d2/(4x2) = (0.5)2/8 = 0.098 m2
R = 0.5/4 = 0.125 m
Q = [0.098x0.1252/3x0.0081/2]/0.012
= 0.183 cms
= 183 L/s
Example 4
For the trapezoidal channel shown in figure, determine
the slope of the channel if the capacity of flow has to
be 4500 L/s. Assume uniform flow and n=0.025
Solution Top width = 2.0+2(2x1.0) = 6.0 m
A =[(2.0+6.0)/2]x1.0
= 4.0 m2
P = 2.0+2xsqrt(1.02+2.02)
= 6.47 m
R = 4.0/6.47
= 0.62 m
S =[(0.025x4.5)/(4.0x0.622/3)]2
= 0.0015

2. HAZEN- WILLIAM’S FORMULA

The Hazen-Williams formula has be developed specially for use with water and has been
generally accepted as the formula used for pipe flow problems.
 v  0.849CR 0.63 s 0.54 v = velocity of flow, m/s
Q  0.849CAR 0.63 s 0.54 R = hydraulic radius, m
S = slope of the energy gradient
C = a roughness coefficient
Example 5
A cast-iron water pipe, 400 mm in diameter, carries water
at a rate of 0.125 cms. Determine, by means of the
Hazen-Williams formula. The slope of the hydraulic
gradient of this pipe and the velocity of flow.
Solution 1. Graphical solution
Use the nomograph, line up the known value, d=381, the
actual diameter of a nominal 400-m pipe, and Q=0.125,
and find S = 0.0045 m/m v = 1.09 m/s
Solution 2. Mathematical solution
From table, for d = 400 and C = 100,
find K = 0.232 and A = 0.114.
Hence s = 0.232x0.1251.85 = 0.005 m/m
and v = Q/A = 0.125/0.114 = 1.09 m/s
Example 6
An asbestos cement water pipe (C=140) with a diameter of
300 mm has a slope of the hydraulic gradient of 0.0025.
Determine, using the Hazen-Williams formula, the capacity
of the pipe and the velocity of flow.
Solution 1. Graphical solution
Use the nomograph, with d=305 mm, the actual diameter of a
300-mm pipe, and s=0.0025, find Q = 0.048 cms and v =
0.66 m/s
However, it must be remembered that the nomograph, as
indicated was constructed for C=100, whereas pipe in
question has a C=140. Consequently, the value of Q and
v need to be corrected.
Solution 2. Mathematical solution
From table, for d=300 and C=140, find K=0.369 and A=0.730.
Hence
Q = (0.0025/0.369)0.54 = 0.067 cms
v = 0.067/0.730 = 0.92 m/s
 Assignment-1

1. The surface water from road side is drained to the

longitudinal side drain from across one half a asphalt road of
total width 10 m, shoulder pavement of width 2 m one side of
drain. On the other side of the longitudinal drain, water flows
across from reserved land with grass and 2 % cross slope
towards the side drain, the width of this strip of land being 50
m. The run off coefficients of the asphaltic, shoulder and
reserved land with grass surface are 0.7, 0.8 and 0.15,
respectively. The length of the stretch of land parallel to the
road from where water is expected to flow to the side drain
is about 2 km. Estimate the quantity of run-off flowing in the
drain assuming 25 years period of frequency.
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 Assignment -2

2. The Maximum quantity of water expected in one of

the open longitudinal on clay soil is 0.9 m3/s. Design
the cross section and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal
drain assuming the bottom width of the trapezoidal
section to be 1 m and cross slopes to be 1V : 1.5H.
The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2 m/s
and Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.02.

237
Hint for question 2

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