Processes Design of Environmental

Engineering Facilities (EnvEng 6021)

By

Dr. Z.A. (PhD, Ass. Professor)

Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma University

1
Chapter I:
Design Preparation - Water
1.1. Properties of Water
1.2. Water resources
1.3. Hydrology/ hydrologic cycle
1.4. Water quantity aspects
1.5. Water pollution
1.6. Impurities of water
1.7. Constituents of water
1.8. Quality of Drinking-water
1.9. Water treatment processes overview

2
1.1. PROPERTIES OF WATER (H2O)
Two elements: O2 + H2 = H2O, no property in
common with either of them. This is b/s-
• O2 - supports combustion and support life
• H2 - a colorless, odorless, tasteless,
flammable gaseous substance that is the
simplest member of the family of chemical
elements.
• Pure water - doesn’t support combustion; not
inflammable; will not support life in gas form
but exist only as liquid,
– E.g Fish in water – depend on the dissolved O2 from 3
the atmosphere than the O2 in the water cpd.
 Properties… cnt’d

• The properties of O2 and H2 are constant while that

of water is not:
– H2O exist in three states: Liquid, Solid, & Gas
– H2O in liquid form weighs approximately 28.41 kg/ft3.
This is 830 times heavier than air.
– But, in the form of vapor, water is 133 times lighter than
air, volume for volume, which partly explains why water
vapor rises in the atmosphere to form clouds.
– Water reaches its greatest density at 4oC, freezes at 0oC
and in open containers boils at 100oC at sea level.
– Up on freezing to ice, water expands in volume by about
one-tenth and exerts a pressure of 15,000 kg/in2. It is this
pressure that bursts water pipes in freezing weather.

4
 Properties… cnt’d

• Water has the ability to dissolve solids and to

absorb gases and other liquids; hence it is
often referred to as “ the universal solvent”.
– Because of this solvent power all natural water
contains minerals and other substances in solution,
which have been picked up from air, the soil and rock
through and over which it passes.
• e.g. rain water will have some materials that it gets from
the atmosphere; sea water (35 gm/l); GW (contain
Fluoride, Iron, Heavy metals, Organic matter).
– Water, which is clean and contains nothing injurious
to health, is called “potable water”.
↔For this reason we spend large sums of money to
treat their water supplies to make clean and safe to
drink. 5
 1.2. WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY:
• The water budget and occurrence of our planet:
– Water is the most widely occurring substance in the
world. Over 72% of the earth’s surface is covered
by water.
• This means that if the body of the water were evenly
distributed it would cover the globe to an average depth of
over 4kms.
 Yet, as far as human use is concerned the water is
unfortunately unevenly distributed. Out of the 72% or
so of the earth’s surface water:
- 97.4% is in the ocean, unfit for human consumption,
and too salty for irrigation drinking with out
desalination, at present too expensive to consider.
- around 2% of the whole water lies frozen in glaciers
and ice caps, and is useless.
 The tiny usable portion left, that is about 0.8% of the
total is neither evenly distributed nor properly used.
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7
 Water resources: population growth
• The rapid population growth between
1970 to 1994 has resulted in the
potential water availability for the
Earth’s population decreasing from
12.9 down to 7.6 thousand cubic
meters per year per person.

– The greatest reduction in population

water supply took place
• in Africa (by 2.8 times),
• in Asia (by two times), and
• south America (by 1.7 times).
– The water supply for the population
of Europe decreased by only 16%
for that period.
8
1.3. Hydrology/Hydrologic Cycles
1. Natural hydrologic cycle:-the constant movement
of water from clouds to earth and back again into the
atmosphere powered with the energy from the sun
and from gravity.
All the waters that are found on the face of the
earth are constantly circulating, and as they
move they change their phases, depending on
temperature, humidity, etc…
↔ water evaporates from the surface of the
oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, etc…and
transpiration takes place from the leaves of plants
and trees. These vapors travel vertically and
laterally until the physical processes are suitable for
them to form of rain, hail, snow, sleet, dew, etc.=
precipitation.
9
The Water Cycle
1012 m3 per year

40
Vapor Transport

71
Evapotranspiration

385 425 111

Precipitation Evaporation Precipitation

Surface
40 Runoff
Return Flow Percolation

Groundwater Flow

12
 HYDROLOGY | the hydrologic cycle

Transpiration
Evaporation
Infiltration
2
Condensation
4
Runoff
Precipitation
Subsurface flow
5
1

7
 2. Urban hydrologic cycle: Human
beings play a central role
Water Use
Public, Industrial,
Commercial
Wastewater Water
Collection Distribution

Wastewater Water Treatment

Treatment

Disposal Withdrawal
Water Source
Streams, rivers, lakes
and groundwater

In human communities there is a constant circulation of water.

↔ A most significant aspects of environmental technology is the maintenance of
this urban water cycle while protecting public health and environmental quality.
15
 3. Hydrology of lakes and Reservoirs
• The parameters used to define the physical
characteristics of lake are:
– Surface area
– Mean depth
– Volume
– Thermodynamic relations, and
– Stratification
All of these influence the chemistry and biology of lake
or reservoir and hence, water quality.
Thermal stratification is the most important
phenomenon with regard to water supply and
eutrophication.

16
Hydrology of lakes…

• Lakes in the temperate zone or in higher

altitudes in sub tropical regions have two
circulations each year in spring and
autumn; thermal stratification is inverse
in winter and direct in summer.
• Lake of the warmer latitudes in which the
water temperature never falls below 4oC
at any depth have one circulation each
year in winter, directly stratify during the
summer.
17
 Temperature profiles of lake showing
stratification and mixing
0 00C 4 0C 210C 90C
Ice

Depth, 20
ft.
40

2 0C 40C 120C 90C

January April August November
Winter Spring Thermal Autumnal
Stagnation Overturn Stratification Circulation

 The vertical variation that may occur in a body of water illustrates

the importance of having a water intake tower with ports at various
depths so that the water supply can be drawn from the most
advantageous level in the water profile 18
 Thermal stratification during late summer
• With the approaches of summer, the surface waters
warm more rapidly and brisk spring winds subside, such
that a lighter surface layer is formed. As the summer
season progresses, resistance to mixing between the top
and bottom layers of different density becomes greater
and thermal stratification is established.

Sunlight
21oC Warm water
Algae
Circulation Epiliminon
Thermocline

Dark, Hypoliminon
stagnant
Cooler water
12oC
b)
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Layers….
• The Epilimnion, warm surface layer, is
continuously mixed by wind and density
currents and supports the growth of algae.
• The Thermocline is the thin zone of rapid
temperature drop between the water layers.
• The Hypolimnion cooler bottom layer is dark
and stagnant.
Although the bulk of fish food is found in the
Epilimnion, many species find the cooler
bottom water a more suitable environment. In
nutrient-rich bodies of water, the Hupolimnion
increase in carbon dioxide content and may
become devoid of dissolved oxygen after many
weeks of stratification.
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Thermal stratification …
↔ Thermal stratification in reservoirs and lakes
has a direct influence on quality of water
supply.
 In the summer, water drawn from near the surface is
warm and may contain algae that cause filter
clogging and test and odor problems.
 Stagnant, cooler Hupolimnion water may be devoid
of dissolved oxygen, high in carbon dioxide, and
may contain the products of anaerobic conditions
such as H2S, odorous organic compounds or
reduced iron.
 Usually the region just below the Thermocline
provides the most satisfactory water quality
during stratification.
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 1.4. Water quantity aspects
• Sources of water supply
• Water quantity: basic computation
– Population estimation
– Fire Demand
– Water Demand

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 Sources of water supply
• The sources of a water supply may include
rainwater, surface waters, and groundwater.
• During the water cycle, rainwater recharges the
surface waters and groundwater.
• River, stream, natural pond, impondment,
reservoir, and lake waters are major surface
water sources.
• Some communities use groundwater, such as
galleries, wells, aquifers, and springs as their
water supply sources.

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 Sources of water supply
• Water supplies may be drawn from a single
source or from a number of different ones.
• The water from multiple sources could be
mixed before distribution or separately
distributed.
• N.B: Any new source of water has to be
approved by the federal, state, and related
authorities.

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 Table 1: QUANTITY AND QUALITY ASPECTS OF
FRESH WATER RESOURCES,
Resource Quantity Quality
Rain water Not sufficient for public supply Good, or less polluted

Groundwater
Shallow (< 10m) Max. withdrawal Polluted in urban areas
Deep (> 60m) Min. withdrawal Rather good, natural
Spring water Mostly not sufficient for public contaminants
supply
Surface water (lake, Sufficient (storage reservoir Poor/bad
river, canal,) incase of dry period)
Sea water plenty Advanced treatment

Used water plenty Expensive treatment

Generally speaking, groundwater is usually preferred over surface water as a

raw water supply source due to being safe from pollution. 25
Surface water : Ethiopia
• Ethiopia known to be the “water tower” of
Northeast Africa is subdivided into 12 river
basins, amounts to 123 billion m3.
• Ethiopia has a lot of beautiful lakes that
are quite good for tourism but not
recommendable for drinking water due to
salinity, high fluoride content, and other
undesirable minerals.

26
More than 20 lakes are found in Ethiopia

27
 e.g. Lake Tana: used for human consumption
by employing required treatment
• Lake Tana is the largest lake in Ethiopia and is the source
of Blue Nile, which flows to Khartoum, Sudan and beyond.
– Surface Area: 3,600.00 Km2
– Depth: Mean depth = 9.0m; Max = 14.0m
– Volume: 28.00 Km3
– Catchment size: 15,000.00 Km2
– Catchment/surface area ratio: 5:1

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GROUND WATER
Groundwater makes
up about 30 % of
the world's fresh
water supply,
which is about 0.75
percent of the
entire world's
water supply

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 Ground water for water supply:
• Not only in arid and semi-arid areas of the world
that groundwater is considered to be the major
source of drinking water, but also in countries
and areas where surface water is available in
large quantities.
– e.g.-in Europe, groundwater intake for water
supply ranges from 98% in Denmark to 65%
in the Netherlands and around 31% in the
United Kingdom.
– Many countries are dependent upon
groundwater, with an estimated 2 billion
people worldwide relying on aquifers for their
drinking water supply.
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 Ground water for water supply: Ethiopia
Map showing the estimated distribution of groundwater availability in Ethiopia.
• Ethiopia possesses
an extractable
groundwater
resources potential
of approximately
2.77 billion m3
mostly in its
western, southern,
south western, and
central low lands.
•These implies the major reliance on groundwater as a water supply source.
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Factors affect the amount of Water Uses

The amount of water used depends on

• Socio-economic status and standard of
living
• Hygiene awareness, Cultural habits
• Climate
• Availability and method of distribution
• The quality of water as experienced by the
users
• etc
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Per capita usage for domestic purpose
Table 2: the per capita usage of water for domestic purposes
(via house connection) for countries in Southern Asia, 1991
Purpose Quantity (l/c/d)
Drinking 5
Cooking 3
Sanitary purposes 18
Bathing 20
Washing 15
Clothes Washing 20
Total (excluding water loss and 81
wastage)
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 Table 3: Set out typical Domestic water usage data for
different types of water supply systems
Type of water supply Typical water Range
consumption (l/c/d) (l/c/d)
Communal water point (e.g village
well, public standpipe)
- > 1000 m
7 5-10
- 500 – 1000 m
12 10-15
Village Well (< 250 m) 20 15-25

Communal standpipe (< 250) 30 20-50

Yard connection (Tap placed in 40 20-80

house-yard)
House connection
-Single tap 50 30-60
-Multiple tap 105 70-250
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 Table 4:VARIOUS WATER REQUIREMENTS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
CATEGORY TYPICAL WATER USE
SCHOOLS
- Day schools 15-30 l/day per pupil
- Boarding schools 90-140 l/day per pupil
Hospitals (with laundry facilities) 220-300 l/day per bed
Hostels 80-120 l/day per resident
Restaurants 65-90 l/day per seat
Cinema houses, concert halls 10-15 l/day per seat
offices 25-40 l/day per person
Railway and bus stations 15-20 l/day per user
Livestock
cattle 25-45 l/day per head
Horses and mules 20-35 l/day per head
sheep 15-25 l/day per head
pigs 10-15 l/day per head
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chicken 15-25 l/day per 100
Table 5: WATER CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN SOUTH
AFRICA, 1999

DEMAND SECTOR (million m3/a) (%)

DIRECT USE
Municipal and domestic 1516 9.3
Industrial 1031 6.3
Mining 446 2.9
Power generation 282 1.7
Irrigation 8504 52.2
Stock-water 262 1.6
Natural conservation 178 1.1
INDIRECT USE
Forestry runoff reduction 1284 7.9
Ecological use, estuaries and lakes 2768 17.0
TOTAL 16290 100.0
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 Water quantity
• The quantity of water needed varies with
reason, geography, size and type of
community, and culture.
• A water supply system may provide for
domestic, industrial, and commercial
usage; public services; fire demand;
unaccounted losses; as well as farm uses.

37
 Water quantity
• The environmental engineers should
examine the availability of water sources
and the quantities in the area.
• The prediction of the future population
should be made for the design purpose.
• Based on long-term meteorological data,
the amount of water stored in lakes and
reservoirs can be estimated.
38
 POPULATION ESTIMATES
• Prior to the design of a water treatment
plant, it is necessary to forecast the future
population of the communities to be
served.
• The plant should be sufficient generally for
25 to 30 years.
• It is difficult to estimate the population
growth due to economic and social factors
involved.

39
 POPULATION ESTIMATES
• However, a few methods have been used
for forecasting population. They include,
1. Arithmetic Method
2. Constant Percentage Growth Rate Method
3. Declining Growth Method
4. Logistic Curve Method
The first three methods are short-term ( 10
years) forecasting.

40
 POPULATION ESTIMATES

1. Arithmetic Method
•This method of forecasting is based upon the hypothesis
that the rate of increase is constant. It may be expressed
as follows: pt = p0 + kat
Where:
•pt = population at future time
•p0 = present population, usually use p2
•t = time, yr
•ka = arithmetic growth rate constant
Ka = (p2 - p1) / (t2 - t1)

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 POPULATION ESTIMATES
2. Constant Percentage Growth Rate Method
•The hypothesis of constant percentage or
geometric growth rate assumes that the rate
increase is proportional to population. It can be
written as
lnp = lnp2 + kp(t - t2)
Where:
•p = population at future time ; p2 = present population
•t = time, yr
•kp = rate constant kp = (ln p2 - ln p1) / (t2 - t1)
42
 POPULATION ESTIMATES
3. Declining Growth Method
•This is a decreasing rate of increase on the basis
that the growth rate is a function of its
population deficit. Mathematically it is given as
P = P0 + (Ps - P0)(1 – e-kdt)
Where:
•p = population at future time; p0 = present population
•ps = saturation population, assume value
•t = time, yr
•kd = rate constant
kd = -{[1/(t2 - t1)][ln(ps - p2)/(ps - p1)]}
43
 POPULATION ESTIMATES
4. Logistic Curve Method
•The logistic curve-fitting method is used for
modeling population trends with an S-shape for
large population center, or nations for long-term
population predictions. The logistic curve form is
P = ps / (1 + ea+b∆t)
Where:
•p = population at future time
•ps = saturation population, assume value
•t = time, yr; a & b = rate constant

44
 WATER REQUIREMENTS

• The uses of water include domestic,

commercial and industrial, public services
such as fire fighting and public buildings, and
unaccounted pipeline system losses and
leakage.
• The average usage in the United States for the
above four categories are 220, 260, 30, and 90
liters per capita per day (L/(c d)), respectively.
• Total municipal water use averages 600 L/(c
d) in the United States.
45
 WATER REQUIREMENTS

• The maximum daily water use (Qmd)

ranges from about 120 to 400 percent of
the average daily use (Qa) with a mean of
about 180 percent.
• Maximum hourly use (Qmh) is about 150
to 12,000 percent of the annual average
daily flow; and 250 to 270 percent are
typically used in design.
46
Fire Demand

• Fire demand of water is often the

determining factor in the design of mains.
– distribution is a short term, small quantity
but with a large flow rate.
• According to uniform fire code, the
minimum fire flow requirement for a one-
and two-family dwelling shall be 1000
gallons per minute (gpm).

47
 Fire Demand
• For the water demand for fire fighting based
on downtown business districts and high-
value area for communities of 200,000
people or less, recommended the following
fire flow rate and population relationship:
Qf = 3.86 √p (1 - 0.01 √p)
where Qf = discharge, m3/min
P = population in thousands

48
 Fire Demand
• The required flow rate for fire fighting must be available
in addition to the coincident maximum daily flow rate.
• The duration during the required fire flow must be available
for 4 to 10 h. National Board of Fire Underwriters
recommends providing for a 10-h fire in towns exceeding
2500 in population.
• For determination of required fire flow recommends the
formula
F = 320 C √A
where F = required fire flow, m3/d
C = coefficient related to the type of construction
A = total floor area, m2

49
 Fire Demand

Coefficient related to the type of construction

50
 1.5. WATER POLLUTION
Pollution:- is, an undesirable change of natural environment. Source of
water pollution
– Point source & Non point source

51
 Water pollution
• The sources of water pollutants are many
and varied.
• The significant potential sources that pollute
the water are:
– industrial activities;
– random discharge of untreated wastes (solid and
liquid) including metals to the land;
– solid waste leachate including manure;
– untreated domestic wastes; as well as
– natural occurrence of heavy metals.

52
 Water: anthropogenic
• According to the World Bank, it is estimated that 95%
of the world’s sewage and industrial wastes are
being dumped directly in to water bodies with out
treatment.
• As a result many water bodies in semi-urban and
urban areas of developing countries have been
converted in to heavily polluted drains.
• The produced leachate from those different sources
containing heavy metals infiltrate in to the soil where
many processes may occur and finally reaches to the
groundwater.

53
Groundwater: “safe sources of water“
• Groundwater has historically been
considered a reliable and safe source of
water, protected from surface contamination
by a “living filter,” an upper soil mantle that
removes pollutants as the water percolates
downward through the soil.
– However, ????

54
 Water: natural contamination
• Ground water and hot spring in the Ethiopian rift
valley are also not recommended for human
consumption due to fluoride concentration that
generally ranges from 5-36 ppm.
• Toxic metals are also a problem around capital
city of many developing countries.

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Water: natural contamination
• Because of, often indiscriminate, dumping of
hazardous wastes in the past and the
geogenic sources of toxic metals in the
rocks and soils (where there are no
industries), the number of cases of serious
groundwater contamination is likely to
increase in the years to come.
• Recent increases in acidity of precipitation
have contributed to increased elutriation of
metals from the soils, rocks and sediments,
making the task of meeting the water quality
standards even more difficult.

56
 1.6. IMPURITIES OF WATER
• Pure water is not found under natural conditions.
– That water which is nearer to purity is rain
water especially that which has been
collected from clean surfaces and that which is
stored in a tank protected from pollution or
contamination.
– Even then rainwater may pick various
kinds of impurities while falling

57
 i. Types of impurities
1. Organic impurities-found from the
growth and decay of animals and vegetable
matters.
– This may include waste matter (animal,
human) refuse and garbage, bacteria,
microscopic plants and animals.
2. Inorganic impurities-found from the
earth.
– This are minerals/nutrient and chemicals

58
ii. Forms of Impurities of water
1. Suspended impurities (> 1 µm)
– Very fine particles of insoluble matter, which
float in a liquid;
– They do not disappear as in the case of
dissolved solids.
– If they are allowed to stand undisturbed they
may settle to the bottom.
Some of these are:
a) microorganisms (1-10 µm )as a result of
pollution of surface water. Pathogens (harmful
bacteria) may be present in such condition,
most dangerous impurity.
59
Impurities of water…
b)Suspended solids that include solids
and clay, pesticide, insecticides, that
may be washed down from agricultural or
industrial setup or droplet from a sprayer.
Suspended solids (ferric hydroxide) generally
cause taste or colour or turbidity (muddiness)
c) Algae that grow in ponds, riverbanks and
in still water, causes taste, colour and
turbidity

60
 Impurities of water…
2. Dissolved impurities (< 0.001 µm)
• Many solids and gasses are soluble in water.
Thus, if they are put in water they disappear
seemingly to become liquids, but in reality they
are there dissolved.
– These are divided in to two: Gases (for example-
oxygen, CO2, H2S,etc) and Minerals/ions (Salts of Ca
& Mg that causes hardness in water and Na & K
causes alkalinity; other minerals such as Pb, As, Hg,
Cr are toxic and Fluoride, cause florosis and stained
teeth; Nitrate causes Blue baby syndrome or
Methaemoglobin anemia in infants;
– Humic substance –causes color and test problem
61
Impurities of water…

3. Colloidal impurities (0.001- 1 µm) or (0.005 –

0.2 µm)
• Colloidal particles (colloids) are midway in size
between dissolved solids and suspended matter.
• Colloids are kept in suspension (stabilized) by
electrostatic repulsion and hydration.
– Some of these are: clay, proteins, silica,
microorganisms (0.03 – 0.3 µm), great variety
of organic polymers, cause color and test
problems

62
Impurities …
• Some impurities of water cannot be seen
with the naked eye but can be detected by
test or odour.
– Some can be seen, and other can be detected
only by laboratory tests.
• Therefore it is usually advisable to
ascertain the nature and quality of
impurities by taking samples at different
seasons and condition to the laboratory.
63
 1.7.CONSTITUENTS OF WATER
Given a raw water,
•what are the constituents of a given raw water that
make it unfit to drink?
•Are these constituents simply
– in the form of turbidity making it unpleasant to
the eye,
– in the form of excessive hardness making
unfit to drink, or
– in the form bacterial contamination making it
dangerous to drink?
64
 CONSTITUENTS OF WATER

• On the other hand, what process should be

applied to treat it:
– biological, chemical, or physical?
– Should it be treated with a combination of
processes?
Theses questions cannot be answered unless the
constituents of the water are known.
• Water may be characterized according to their
physical, chemical, and microbiological
characteristics.
65
 i. Physical characteristics of water:
• Physical characteristics that are simple to know
and to measure are:
– Temperature (EC 12-25 oC) : because of its effect on
other properties
– Taste and odour: caused by dissolved impurities
– Color (WHO 15 mg Pt/l): True color (material in solution);
Apparent color (Suspended mater in solution); even pure water is
not colorless
– Turbidity (WHO 5 NTU): presence of colloids giving liquid a
cloudy appearances.

66
 ii. Chemical characteristics of water

• pH (WHO 6.5 - 8.5): refers to water being either an

acid, base, or neither (neutral).- Acid (pH < 7),
Neutral (pH ~ 7) & Alkaline (pH > 7)

• Buffering Capacity (Alkalinity)- refers to water’s

ability to keep the pH stable as acids or bases are
added.

• General Hardness – refers to the dissolved

concentration of magnesium and calcium ions.
– Very soft (0-70 mg CaCO3/l),
– Soft (70-140 mg CaCO3/l) ,
– Medium hard (140-210 mg CaCO3/l) ,
– fairly hard (210-320 mg CaCO3/l) 67
 Chemical …
• Salinity- refers to the total amount of
dissolved substances
• Nutrients and Trace Elements: there are
so many nutrients and trace elements
dissolved in the water while it is traveling
on the surface of the earth or percolating
through the earth.
Example: PO43-, NO3-, Ca, Mg, Cl2, F2,
As, Cd, Cr, etc.
68
 iii. Microbiological characteristics

• Bacteria-widely distributed in nature

• Protozoa
• Viruses s
ne
• etc.. l i
de i
Gu
HO
. W
e f
R

69
1.8. QUALITY OF DRINKING-WATER

Pure water
Does not exist in nature !

Contamination due to its natural environment

Natural water

Pollution by human activities

Raw water

Water treatment !

Drinking water ?

70
Drinking-water (DW) requirements
1st .The most important requirement DW must
meet, is that it is free of organisms and
chemical substances which might be
injuries to health
2nd .DW should be of such a composition that
consumers do not question the safety of
the water. This requirement implies that
turbidity, colour, taste and odour should be
low, and macro-organisms (e.g. worms,
Asellus, aquatic and fly nymphs) should be
absent.
71
 DW requirements
3rd DW should be suitable for house-
keeping, for this reason
– The iron and manganese content should be
low, because these substances colour laundry
(like shirts) during washing. Iron causes a
brown and manganese a black colour
– Hardness should be low, because water with
a high hardness causes scale formation in
water-heaters by precipitation of calcium
carbonate. Moreover a high hardness of the
water implies that a high dosage of detergent
is required for washing
72
DW requirements …
4th . DW should not be aggressive to materials
like lead, copper, asbestos cement and
concrete, cast iron, galvanized steel, PVC (poly
vinyl chloride) and PE (polyethylene). Because
pipes, tubes and apparatus used in distribution
systems and plumbing installations may consist
of these materials. Pipes, tubes and apparatus
affected by water cause many problems
5th . DW should be free of any disagreeable
taste or odour. Consumers do not like to be
supplied with water that dose not have a good
test and odour. Moreover DW which has any
disagreeable taste or odour is unsuitable for
making tea, coffee, soup, etc. 73
 “ DW must be free of organisms
which might be injurious to health”
It is stated above that DW must be free of
these organisms, instead of absolutely
free
 the reason for this is, that it is
not possible and not necessary to
supply water of such an exceptional
quality

74
 Why it is not possible ?

• “ Absolutely free means

e.g. no microorganisms present in 1ml, 100
ml, 1L, 1 m3, 106 m3, 109 m3, etc…
– It is impossible to produce 106 m3 or 109 m3
water that is “absolutely free of any harmful
organism” and to verify that.

75
 Why it is not necessary ?

• Whether the organisms cause disease in

human depends on how
– Virulent they are
– High their concentration is (Polio = 105
to 106 have to be ingested)
– They are ingested by the host
– Resistant the host is ?

76
Why…..
The following equation has been suggested to
illustrate the relations between the several
factors r = NV/R,
where :
r = factor related to the probability of disease
N = number of organisms; -
V = virulence of organisms
R = resistance of the host
If r > 1, disease results, and if r < 1, it
probably will not.
But, in practice some of the factors cannot be measured
and expressed in figures.

77
 In practice we use indicator organisms

• The organisms which are used as

indicators are:
– Coliform bacteria (especially Escherichia coli)
– Streptococcus faecalis
– Spores of Clostridium perfringens
“ E. coli should be absent in 100 ml samples”

Why indicators ?

78
Why indicators ?
1. They are present in large numbers in the
faces of human.
– 1/3 to 1/5 of the weight of the average individual
faces consist of active viable Coliform organisms.
– In terms of population equivalent, this amounts to
200.109 Coliform cells per capita day

The main source of faecal matter is domestic

sewage.
Example: the number of organisms that is present
in sewage varies enormously:
E. coli (105-106 per ml);
S. faecalis (103-105 per ml);
Spores (102-104 per ml)
79
Why indicators ?

2. Measurement of pathogenic (micro-)

organisms in water is
very complicated,
time consuming and
very costly;
3. Indicator organisms are not harmful

80
 Table 8: Example of risk classification for
fecal Coliform or E.coli for rural water supply
Count per 100 ml Risk category

0 In conformity with WHO

guideline
1-10 Law risk

11-100 Intermediate risk

101-1000 High risk

> 1000 Very high risk

81
“ DW must be free of chemical substance,
that might be injurious to health”
• Remark: “not absolutely free”
 the reason for this is, that it is not
possible and not necessary to supply water of
such an exceptional quality
• The reason for this fact is that the harmful effect of
substances dose not only depend on the type of the
compound, but also on the quantity that is consumed.
• In general the toxicity of compounds is roughly divided
in acute and sub-acute toxicity and is measured by:
– LD 50 (Lethal Dose 50) (acute);
– “no effect level” (Sub-acute).
82
LD 50 is the quantity of a compound that kills 50% of a
number of human beings or animals within a few days,
when it is consumed at once. The value of LD 50 is
expressed as g or g/kg body weight.
The following classification for acute toxicity measured by
LD 50 is used, table 10 :
Class LD 50 range Category description

1 1 mg/kg Extremely toxic

2 1-50 mg/kg Very toxic

3 50-500 mg/kg Moderately toxic

4 0.5-5 g/kg Slightly toxic

5 5-15 g/kg Hardly toxic

6 15 g/kg Non-toxic
83
 Values of LD 50 for some compounds
with respect to man are listed below, table 11
Compound LD 50
Water 10-15 Kg
Salt (NaCl) 250 gm
alcohol 200 gm
Sodium fluoride 5 gm
Cyanide 50 mg
Clostridium botulinum toxin 0.07 mg
84
 The sub-acute toxicity is measured by the “no
effect level”, expressed as mg/kg in the daily diet

• The value of the “no effect level” is the quantity of

compound, harmful effects to health.
• Three categories of it:
– Very toxic - no effect level: < 10mg/kg in the daily
diet;
– Moderately toxic - no effect level: 10-250 mg/kg in
the daily diet;
– Slightly toxic - no effect level: > 250 mg/kg in the
daily diet;
Sub-acute toxicity:
A. non-carcinogens and
B. carcinogens
85
 Sub-acute toxicity for non-carcinogens and
non-genotoxic carcinogens is expressed as:
• NOAEL=no-observed-adverse-level: the
highest dose or concentration of a
substance that causes no detectable health
effect preferably based on long-term
studies. or
• LOAEL=lowest-observed-adverse-level: the
lowest observed dose or concentration of a
substance at which there is a detectable
adverse health effect.
86
Guidelines based on NOAEL or LOAEL
• Tolerable daily intake (TDI): is the
amount of a substance, expressed on a
body weight (e.g. mg/kg of body weight
of a person) that can be ingested daily
with e.g. food, air, water, without
appreciable health risk.
• The TDI can be derived as follows:
– TDI = NOAEL/UF or LOAEL/UN
• UN = Uncertainty factor e.g. 1 to 10,000

87
 The maximum permissible concentration in
drinking-water of toxic compound or standards
(Guidelines) can be estimated for example as
follows
S = (TDI* W * p)/C
Where: S = Standards/guidelines
w = body weight (60 kg for adults, 10 kg
for children, 5 kg for infants)
p = fraction of the TDI allocated to
drinking water;
C = daily consumption of drinking water
(2 L for adults, 1 L for children, 0.75 for infants)

88
Sub-acute toxicity for carcinogens and potential
carcinogen having a genotoxic effect a different
approach is being followed:
• Carcinogens are classified in 4 groups:
– Group 1: carcinogenic to human
– Group 2A: probably carcinogenic to human
– Group 2B: possibly carcinogenic to human
– Group 3: not classifiable
– Group 4: probably not carcinogenic to human

For genotoxic carcinogens a mathematical model

is used. This model is based on excess life time
cancer risk of 10-5 (one additional cancer case
per 100,000 of population for 70 years).
89
1.9. Water treatment processes overview

Why treatment? Barriers ……

Economy Vs treatment level
Water treatment objectives ?

Raw water quality

treatment Required quality

To meet the DW requirements

90
 1.9. Water treatment ….
i. How to reduce the sanitary risks from
drinking water ?
Applying different barriers is important to reduce
the sanitary risk from drinking water due to
physical, microbial and chemical contaminants.
• Barriers include:
– Watershed and land use management to
protect surface and ground water;
– Selection and protection of the best
available water sources;
– On-site waste water treatment and reuse;

91
 1.9. Water treatment ….
i. How to reduce the sanitary risks ….

Barriers include:

–Adequate and well maintained distribution

systems;
–Safe water practices by consumers; and
–Water treatment (WT)

Application of a multiple barriers strategy

should significantly reducing the cost and
complexity of water treatment.
92
 1.9. Water treatment ….
ii. Conceptual relation between socio-economic
level and water treatment technologies
The level of water treatment technology should be in
harmony with:
– The type of risk existing in the supply sources =
suitable source selection
– Institutional and socio-economic conditions
prevailing in the target community
= affordability
– Availability of skilled O & M and management staff
= technical complexity

93
 1.9. Water treatment ….
ii. Conceptual relation between….

 With increasing life expectancy, enhanced

institutional capacities and improve economic
conditions, water treatment has progressively
combined technologies to reduce initially the
acute health risks, often of microbiological
nature, and later the chronic health risks, usually
of physical, chemical origin.
94
 1.9. Water treatment ….
Schematize conceptual relation between socio-
economic level and water treatment objectives

Advanced others
W
a Trace levels of organic matter
t
e
r
Chemicals and toxicants

t
r
e Hardness
a
t
m Solids, taste and odour
e
n
t
Bacteria, viruses and protozoa, etc
Basic
Law Socio-economic level/ institutional capacity High
95
 1.9. Water treatment ….

Water treatment: Is the process removing all

unwanted substance.

Major Objectives:
• To prevent water borne disease;

• To remove substance which imparts;

• To remove excess minerals;

• To regulate essential chemicals;

• To remove excess dissolved gasses.

96
1.9. Water treatment ….

?
hy
W

97
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