ENERGY RESOURCES ★ Diversion Facility

Importance of Energy Resources

➔ Energy is essential to life and to all
living organisms

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
➔ Is the energy produced by various
natural processes due to the heat of
the earth.
★ Pumped-Storage Facility

Types of Geothermal Power Plants

★ Dry Steam - Hot steam from
underground is piped directly into
turbines, which powers the generator
★ Flash Steam - Hot water from
underground is pumped into a cooler
temperature flash tank. The sudden
change in temperature creates steam
which powers the generator.
★ Binary Cycle - Hot water from
underground is pumped through a
heat exchanger which heats a second
liquid that transforms into steam.
HYDROELECTRICITY
➔ Is a form of energy generated by the
motion of water (kinetic energy) and is
converted into electricity.
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants:
★ Impound Facility
Other Energy Resources
★ Wind Energy Resources
★ Solar Energy Resources
★ Fossil Energy Resources
★ Hydrogen Energy Resources
Top 5 Environmental Concerns
1. Biodiversity - Over 80% of the original
forest that covered the earth 8,000
years ago has been cleared.
2. Water - Nearly 97% of the world’s water
is salty or otherwise undrinkable.
3. Deforestation - The loss of forests is
contributing to around 15% of our
greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Pollution - According to the W.H.O.,
ambient air pollution contributes to 6.7
percent of all deaths worldwide.
5. Climate Change - 18 of 19 warmest
years have all occurred since 2001.

WATER RESOURCES

Sources of Water
➔ Seawater - is water that makes up the
oceans and seas, covering more than
70% of the earth’s surface.
 ➔ Fresh Water - water that is not salty, for
instance, water that is found in lakes,
streams, and rivers, but not in the
ocean. Also refer to things living in or
related to freshwater.
➔ Hydrologic Cycle - the sequence of
conditions through which water passes
from vapor in the atmosphere through
precipitation upon land or water
surfaces and ultimately back into the
atmosphere as a result of evaporation
and transpiration.
Earth’s Water: 3% Fresh Water, 97% Saline
Freshwater: 68.7% Icecaps & Glaciers, 30.1%
Ground Water, 0.9% Other.
Fresh Surface Water: 2% Rivers, 11% Swamps,
87% Lakes.
Sources of Fresh Water
➔ Surface Water - is water above the
ground such as in a river, lake, or
freshwater wetland. Surface water is
naturally replenished by precipitation
and naturally lost through discharge to
the oceans, evaporation,
evapotranspiration, and groundwater
recharge.
➔ Under River Flow -
➔ Ground Water - is freshwater located in
the subsurface pore space of soil and
rocks. It is also water that is flowing
within aquifers below the water table.
Sometimes it is useful to make a
distinction between groundwater that
is closely associated with surface
water and deep groundwater in an
aquifer (sometimes called “fossil
water”).
◆ What is an aquifer?
● Aquifers - body of rock or
sediment that can store
a lot of water and allows
water to flow easily
through it.
● Aquifers and ground ice
are forms of
groundwater.
➔ Frozen Water - several schemes have
been proposed to make use of
icebergs as a water source, however
to date this has only been done for
research purposes. Glacier runoff is
considered to be surface water.
Seawater (Desalination)
➔ is a process that takes away mineral
components from saline water. More
generally, desalination refers to the
removal of salts and minerals from a
target substance, as in soil
desalination, which is an issue for
agriculture. Saltwater (especially sea
water) is desalinated to produce
water suitable for human consumption
or irrigation. The by-product of the
desalination process is brine.
Desalination is used on many seagoing
ships and submarines. Most of the
modern interest in desalination is
focused on cost-effective provision of
freshwater for human use. Along with
recycled wastewater, it is one of the
few rainfall-independent water
resources.[
Artificial Sources of Usable Water (Economic
and environmental side effects of these
technologies must also be taken into
consideration):
★ Treated Wastewater (Reclaimed
Water)
★ Desalinated Seawater
Reclaimed Water
➔ Water reclamation a.k.a. wastewater
reuse is the process of converting
municipal wastewater (sewage) or
industrial wastewater into water that
can be reused for a variety of
purposes. Types of reuse include:
urban reuse, agricultural reuse
(irrigation), environmental reuse,
industrial reuse, planned potable
reuse, de facto wastewater reuse
(unplanned potable reuse). For
example, reuse may include irrigation
 of gardens and agricultural fields or ◆ Differences in average annual
replenishing surface water and precipitation and economic
groundwater (i.e., groundwater resources divide the world’s
recharge). continents, countries, and
people into water haves and
Hydrologic Cycle: Evaporation (Oceans, have-nots.
Swamps, Marshes, Rivers, Groundwater, ◆ Canada, with only 0.5% of the
Lakes) - Condensation (Atmosphere) - world’s populations, has 20% of
Precipitation (Glaciers & Ice Caps) the world’s liquid freshwater.
While China, with 19% of the
Water Uses world’s people, has only 7% of
★ Drinking water and domestic use the supply.
(households)
★ Industries How can we increase water supplies?
★ Irrigation of green spaces and golf ★ Trade-Offs: Withdrawing Groundwater
courses ○ Advantages
★ Environment ■ Useful for drinking and
★ Recreation irrigation.
■ Exists almost everywhere.
Water Challenges and Threats ■ Renewable if not over
★ Water scarcity pumped or
★ Water pollution contaminated.
★ Water and conflict ■ Cheaper to extract than
★ Climate change most surface waters.
○ Disadvantages
Most of the freshwater is not available to us ■ Aquifer depletion from
➔ About 0.024% is readily available to us overpumping.
as liquid freshwater in accessible ■ Sinking of land
groundwater deposits in lakes, rivers, (subsidence) from
and streams. overpumping.
➔ The rest is in the salty oceans, in frozen ■ Pollution of aquifers lasts
polar ice caps and glaciers, or in deep decades or centuries.
underground and inaccessible ■ Deeper wells are
locations. nonrenewable.
➔ The world’s freshwater supply is ★ Solutions: Groundwater Depletion
continually collected, purified, ○ Prevention
recycled, and distributed in the earth’s ■ Waste less water.
hydrologic cycle, except when: ■ Subsidize water
◆ Overloaded with pollutants. conservation.
◆ We withdraw water from ■ Limit the number of wells.
underground and surface water ■ Do not grow
supplies faster than it is water-invasive crops in
replenished. dry areas.
◆ We alter long-term precipitation ○ Control
rates and distribution patterns of ■ Raise the price of water
freshwater through our to discourage waste.
influence on projected climate ■ Tax water pumped from
change. wells near surface
➔ Freshwater is not distributed evenly. waters.
 ■ Set and enforce
minimum stream flow
levels.
■ Divert surface water in
wet years to recharge
aquifers.
How can we use freshwater more
sustainably?
Reducing fresh water waste has many
advantages:
★ An estimated 66% of the freshwater
used in the world is unnecessarily
wasted.
★ In the United States (the world’s largest
user of water), about half of the water
drawn from the surface and
groundwater supplies is wasted.
★ It is economically and technically
feasible to reduce such water losses to
15%, thereby meeting most of the
world’s water needs for the
foreseeable future.
Ways to reduce freshwater waste in irrigation
★ Solutions: Reducing Irrigation Water
Waste
○ Line canals bringing water to
irrigation ditches.
○ Irrigate at night to reduce
evaporation.
○ Monitor soil moisture to add
water only when necessary.
○ Grow several crops on each
plot of land (polyculture)
○ Encourage organic farming.
○ Avoid growing water-thirsty
crops in dry areas.
○ Irrigate with treated waste
water.
○ Import water-intensive crops
and meat.
We can cut freshwater waste in industry and
homes
★ Solutions: Reducing Water Waste.
○ Redesign manufacturing
processes to use less water.
○ Recycle water in industry.
○ Landscape yards with plants
that require little water.
○ Use drip irrigation.
○ Fix water leaks.
○ Use water meters.
○ Raise water prices.
○ Use waterless composting
toilets.
○ Require water conservation in
water-short cities.
○ Collect and reuse household
waters to irrigate lawns and
nonedible plants.
○ Purify and reuse water for
houses, apartments, and office
buildings.
We need to use water more sustainably
➔ Each of us can help bring about such
a “blue revolution” by using and
wasting less water to reduce our water
footprints.
➔ Solutions: Sustainable Water Use
◆ Waste less water and subsidize
water conservation.
◆ Do not deplete aquifers.
◆ Preserve water quality.
◆ Protect forests, wetlands,
mountain glaciers, watersheds,
and other natural systems that
store and release water.
◆ Get agreements among regions
and countries sharing surface
water resources.
◆ Raise water prices.
◆ Show population growth.
What can you do?
★ Water Use and Waste
○ Use water-saving toilets,
showerheads, and faucet
aerators.
○ Shower instead of taking baths,
and take short showers.
○ Repair water leaks.
○ Turn off sink faucets while
brushing teeth, shaving, or
washing.
 ○ Wash only full loads of clothes
or use the lowest possible
water-level setting for smaller
loads.
○ Use recycled (gray) water for
watering lawns and houseplants
or for washing cars.
○ Wash a car from a bucket of
soapy water and use the hose
for rinsing only.
○ If you use a commercial car
wash, try to find one that
recycles its water.
○ Replace your lawn with native
plants that need little if any
watering.
○ Water lawns and yards only in
the early morning or evening.
○ Use drip irrigation and mulch for
gardens and flowerbeds.
SOIL RESOURCES
What is Soil?
➔ A dynamic natural body capable of
supporting a vegetative cover.
➔ Contains chemical solutions,
gases, organic refuse, flora,
and fauna.
➔ It is called the skin of the earth.
➔ It provides nutrients that directly or
indirectly support much of life on
earth.
Major Soil Components
★ Inorganic Materials
○ Soil contains varying amounts of
insoluble materials - rock
fragments and minerals that will
not readily dissolve in water.
○ Most minerals found in soils are
combinations of the common
elements of the Earth’s surface
rocks: Silicon, Aluminum,
Oxygen, and Iron.
○ Soil Fertilization - is the process
of adding nutrients or other
constituents in order to meet
the soil conditions that certain
plants require.
★ Soil Water
○ Water also sits in the pores
between soil particles. It is
found clinging to the outside of
soil particles and in the smaller
pore spaces.
○ Water is used by plants for
photosynthesis and is lost
through transpiration.
○ Soil water also contains
dissolved minerals that can be
used by plants.
○ If there is too much water in the
soil there is no room for air. If
there’s no air the plants die
because the plant roots can’t
respire.
○ On the other hand, if there’s too
little water in the soil the plants
wilt and can die. This is because
plants continually lose water to
the air in the process of
transpiration.
○ Plants grow best if there’s a
good balance of water and air
in the soil.
★ Soil Air
○ Plant roots need air to respire
and grow properly.
○ Air is also needed for soil
organisms to survive.
○ Air is found in the spaces
between the soil particles.
These spaces are called
pores.
★ Organic Matter
○ includes: compost, dead plants,
dead animals and animal
manure.
○ Decomposers such as bacteria
and fungi help to break it down
(decompose it). Organic matter
that is completely decomposed
 forms a dark, brown coloured
material called humus.
○ When organic matter and
humus are added to inorganic
matter, soil is formed.
○ Organic matter makes up
about 5% of an ideal soil.
○ Poor, unproductive soils often
lack organic matter.
Characteristics of Soil
★ Color
○ Soil color can hold clues to the
composition and formation of
the soil.
○ Blue/Silver/Gray - indicates that
oxygen has been removed from
the soil.
○ White - indicates the presence
of calcium carbonate and salts.
○ Black - indicates high amount
of organic material in the soil.
Ex. humus.
★ Texture
○ Refers to the particle sizes (or
distribution of sizes) that make a
lip a soil. It helps determine a
soil’s capacity to retain moisture
and air that are necessary for
plant growth.
○ Clay - having diameters of less
than 0.002 mm, clayey soils.
○ Silt - having diameter between
0.002 - 0.05 mm, silty soil.
○ Sand - having diameter
between 0.05 - 2.0mm, sandy
soil.
○ Soil texture can be silty clay if it
contains 50% silt, 45% clay, and
5% sand.
○ Soil texture can be sandy clay
loam if it contains 20% silt, 30%
clay, and 50% sand.
★ Structure
○ Refers to the way soil particles
group together to form
aggregates (or soil peds).
○ Good soil structure is important,
as it allows water to soak into
the soil and excess water to
drain away. It also allows air
movement through the soil. Soil,
air and water are vital for
healthy plant growth and
nutrient supply.
○ Soil Peds - are made up of
mineral particles (clay, silt,
sand) and organic matter.
○ Examples of different types of
soil structure: a. Blocky, b.
Columnar, c. Massive, D. Single
Grain, e. Platy.
★ Acidity and Alkalinity
➔ Soil pH is a characteristic that
describes the relative acidity or
alkalinity of the soil. Soils are
considered acidic if pH < 5, and
very acidic if pH < 4. On the
other hand, soils are considered
alkaline if pH > 7.5, and very
alkaline if pH > 8.
Role of water in the soil
➔ Soil water serves as the solvent and
carrier of food nutrients for plants
growth.
➔ It helps to regulate soil temperature.
➔ Soil water is the principal constituent of
the growing plants.
➔ Soil water is essential for
photosynthesis.
➔ Micro organisms require water for their
metabolic activities.
➔ Soil water helps in chemical and
biological activities of the soil.
➔ Soil forming processes and weathering
depend on soil moisture.
Human activities that affect the quality and
quantity of the soil
★ Negative Effects of Farming:
○ Tillage - technique of
manipulating the soil in
preparation for crop
production.
○ Pesticides - chemicals used to
control insects and other
 organisms harmful to cultivated How do rocks change or undergo an
plants and animals. exogenic process?
○ Veterinary Medicines - direct ★ Weathering - is the process of
application of antimicrobials disintegration (physical) and
and nematicides usually used decomposition (chemical) of rocks;
as veterinary medicines to soil. breaking down of rocks into smaller
★ Positive Effects of Farming: particles.
○ Herbicides - restricting weed ○ Two types of weathering:
emergence and/or growth and ■
stimulating crop growth. ■ Mechanical (Physical
○ Lime and mineral fertilizers - Weathering) - breaking
provide stable optimum down of rocks WITHOUT
growing conditions, meet plant changing its
nutrient demand and maintain composition.
a balanced nutrient budget. ● Factors of
○ Growing Plants - the action of Mechanical
roots is important for the Weathering:
development and stabilization ○ Pressure
of soil structure. Roots tend to ○ Temperatur
compress soil in their vicinity ○ Frost
changing per size distribution. Wedging
○ Organic Manures and other ○ Abrasion
Organic Fertilizers - when ○ Organic
applied regularly, organic Activity
fertilizer inputs generally lead to ○ Human
an increase in the populations Activity
of all soil organisms. ○ Animal
○ Drainage and Irrigation - tend Burrowing
to stabilize the soil moisture ■ Chemical - there are
regime away from extremes. changes in rocks due to
Irrigation in dry seasons reduces chemical reaction.
the disturbance effect of soil ● Dissolution - rocks
drying and can increase the and minerals are
length of time during which soil dissolved by
organisms are active. water.
● Hydrolysis -
breaking down of
rocks to produce
EXOGENIC PROCESS clay and soluble
➔ Rocks undergo a series of geologic salts.
processes known as exogenic process. ● Oxidation -
➔ Breaking down and eroding rock breaking down of
fragments from higher energy sites, rocks by oxygen
transporting them to locations of lower in/and water,
energy. often giving
iron-rich rocks a
rusty colored
weathered
surface.
 ★ Erosion - is the separation and removal
of weathered rocks due to different
agents like water, wind, and ice, that
causes transportation of minerals to
where they are deposited.
★ Mass Wasting - is the movement of
sediments downslope under the
influence of gravity.
Example:
- Fast Mass Wasting: Fall, Slide,
Avalanche, Flow.
- Slow Mass Wasting: Creep - slow
migration of weathered rocks or
soil particles to successfully
lower elevations.
- Solifluction - refers to the slow
downslope movement of
water-saturated soil and/or
regolith.
★ Deposition - is the process in which the
weathered materials carried out by
erosion settle down in a particular
location.
ENDOGENIC PROCESS
Three main sources of heat in the deep earth
1) Heat from when the planet formed
and accreted, which has not yet been
lost.
2) Frictional heating, caused by denser
core material sinking to the center of
the planer.
3) Heat from the decay of radioactive
elements.
How is endogenic different from exogenic?
★ Endogenic: These are INTERNAL forces
that exist deep inside the Earth.
★ Exogenic: These are EXTERNAL forces
that operate and act on the surface
of the earth.
★ Endogenic: These forces are also
known as CONSTRUCTIVE forces as
they create relief features on the
surface of the earth.
★ Exogenic: These forces are also known
as DESTRUCTIVE as they at times result
in destruction of the existing landforms
through weathering and erosional
activities.
★ Endogenic: The ultimate source of
energy behind forces that drive
endogenic movements is earth’s
internal heat.
★ Exogenic: Weathering, mass wasting,
erosion, and deposition are the MAIN
EXOGENIC PROCESSES.
★ Endogenic: Differences in temperature
and pressure (temperature gradients
or geothermal gradients and pressure
gradients) among various layers of the
earth give rise to density differences
and these density differences give rise
to conventional currents.
★ Exogenic: The exogenic forces derive
their energy from the atmosphere
determined by the ultimate energy
from the sun and also the gradient
created by tectonic factors. Those
slopes on earth surfaces are mainly
created by tectonic factors or earth
movements due to endogenic forces.
★ Endogenic: Endogenic forces produce
after-effects that are visible only after it
causes sudden damage.
Examples:
○ Earthquakes
○ Volcanic eruptions
★ Exogenic: Exogenic forces create
changes visible over a period of
thousands or millions of years.
Examples:
○ Winds
○ Rivers
○ Glaciers
Landforms and Geomorphology Shearing Tectonic Forces
➔ A landform is a feature on the Earth’s
surface that is part of the terrain.
Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains
are the FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
LANDFORMS. Buttes, canyons, valleys,
and basins are examples of MINOR
LANDFORMS.
➔ Geomorphology - a major subfield of
physical geography devoted to the
scientific study of landforms.

Tectonic Forces, Rock Structure, and

Landforms
➔ Tectonic forces - push two areas of
crustal rocks together tend to shorten
and thicken the crust.
➔ Folding - bending or crumpling of rock
layers.
➔ Faulting - the slippage or displacement
of rocks along a fractured surface.

Compressional Tectonic Forces

➔ Folded rock structures become Graben and Horst
increasingly complex as the applied ➔ Horst (Upward Blocks)
compressional forces become ➔ Grabens (Down Dropped Blocks)
unequal from the two directions are bounded by normal faults.
➔ Upfolds are anticlines; Downfolds are
synclines. The rock layers that form the
flanks of anticlinal crests and synclinal
troughs are folded limbs.

Tensional Tectonic Forces

➔ Tensional Tectonic Forces - pull in
opposite directions in a way that
stretches and thins the impacted part
of the crust.
➔ Tensional forces commonly cause the
Relationships between rock structure and
crust to break into discrete blocks
topography
called fault blocks.
➔ Tectonic activity produces different
types of structural features that
range from microscopic fractures to
major folds and fault blocks.
➔ Words like mountain, ridge, valley,
basin, and fault scarp are geomorphic
terms that describe the surface
topography,
 whereas anticline, syncline, horst,
graben, and normal fault are
structural terms that describe the
arrangement of rock layers.
➔ Topographic variations on Earth's
surface results from the interaction of
three major factors: endogenic
processes that create relief, exogenic
processes that shape landforms and
strength or resistance of different rock
types to weathering and
erosion.

*For Relative vs. Absolute Dating & Geologic

Time Scale, please refer to the google forms
assessment posted in our google classroom.