SECTION 1

Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle

1. Introduction
2. The Hydrologic Cycle
3. Water Balance

CEE 9870 Winter 2021 Dr. Chris Power

Introduction
Introduction
Water – how essential is it?
▪ Human body: 3 L of potable water
per day to maintain body
▪ Older toilet flush: 19 L of water
▪ Person’s typical day: 200 – 300 L

▪ Always assumed to be available and

no one worried about its longevity
until it seemed threatened
▪ Today, we have a more realistic
attitude and know we must preserve
and protect our precious natural
resources, including water
Introduction
Water – how essential is it?
▪ Human body: 3 L of potable water
per day to maintain body
▪ Older toilet flush: 19 L of water
▪ Person’s typical day: 200 – 300 L

▪ Always assumed to be available and

no one worried about its longevity
until it seemed threatened
▪ Today, we have a more realistic
attitude and know we must preserve
and protect our precious natural
resources, including water
▪ This is already happening in
Canada, with litres per capita per
day (LPCD) decreasing in recent
years
Introduction

RESIDENTIAL
Introduction
Water – how essential is it?
▪ Human body: 3 L of potable water
per day to maintain body
▪ Older toilet flush: 19 L ofTOTAL
water
▪ Person’s typical day: 200 – 300 L

▪ Always assumed to be available and

no one worried about its longevity
until it seemed threatened
▪ Today, we have a more realistic
attitude and know we must preserve
and protect our precious natural
RESIDENTIAL
resources, including water
▪ This is already happening in
Canada, with litres per capita per
day (LPCD) decreasing in recent
years
Introduction
Groundwater – what is it?
▪ Water in the pore spaces of the subsurface
▪ Typically used to describe potable, extractable water in near surface
formations
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we
care?
▪ Groundwater accounts for 30.1%
of all the world’s freshwater
▪ Removing inaccessible glaciers,
groundwater represents 96% of
the world’s freshwater

Distribution of Earth’s water resources

Introduction
Groundwater – why do we
care?
▪ Groundwater accounts for 30.1%
of all the world’s freshwater
▪ Removing inaccessible glaciers,
groundwater represents 96% of
the world’s freshwater

Distribution of Earth’s water resources

Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Water in the pore spaces of the subsurface
▪ Typically used to describe potable, extractable water in near surface
formations
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Water in the pore spaces of the subsurface
▪ Typically used to describe potable, extractable water in near surface
formations

Fan et al. (2013) Global Patterns of Groundwater Table Depth

Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Groundwater provides water to replenish aquifers, springs and wells
▪ Aquifers house groundwater and form a ‘savings account’
▪ Can be used in droughts but takes decades/centuries to refill

Some of the world’s most productive, accessible groundwater supplies

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/07/world-aquifers-water-wars/
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Groundwater provides water to replenish aquifers, springs and wells
▪ Aquifers house groundwater and form a ‘savings account’
▪ Can be used in droughts but takes decades/centuries to refill
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Groundwater provides water to replenish aquifers, springs and wells
▪ Aquifers house groundwater and form a ‘savings account’
▪ Can be used in droughts but takes decades/centuries to refill
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ Despite its importance throughout the globe, contamination of drinking
water resources by natural and anthropogenic substances is common.
▪ Brownfield sites (contaminated, abandoned properties) severely limit
redevelopment and reinvigoration of many urban cores.
▪ Contamination of water resources, therefore, has significant health,
ecological and economic societal impacts.
Introduction
Groundwater – why do we care?
▪ From the industrial revolution until the 1970s, vast amounts of hazardous
waste chemicals were disposed directly to the subsurface with the belief
that the subsurface acted as a natural filter of disposed chemicals.
▪ In the US, it was not until an abnormally high number of birth defects and
miscarriages were found in Love Canal, New York, that the public
became aware of the impacts of improper contaminant disposal.
Introduction
Groundwater Science
▪ Hydrology: study of all waters of the earth
▪ Hydrogeology: encompasses the interrelationships of geologic materials
and processes with water (i.e., geohydrology)
▪ Hydrogeologists:
▪ training in geology, hydrology, chemistry, mathematics, physics, engineering
(fluid mechanics, flow through porous media) and computer science
▪ Employment with consulting organizations, water resource management
districts and planning agencies, energy and mining companies, federal
agencies, UN groups and local governments
Introduction
What do Hydrogeologists Do?
▪ Research
▪ Principles of fluid flow and movement of contaminants
▪ Basic research: search for first principles
▪ Applied research: solve a specific problem

▪ Groundwater Supply and Management

▪ Locate and develop a source of groundwater
▪ Groundwater control (e.g., dewatering for construction, mining projects)
▪ Groundwater protection and water conservation

▪ Groundwater Contamination
▪ Groundwater monitoring at contaminated sites
▪ Satisfy the specific regulatory and legal requirements
▪ Working for site owners, consulting firms and regulatory agencies
Introduction
Groundwater: Profession/Science
▪ Professional/Scientific Societies
▪ American Geophysical Union (AGU)
▪ United States Geological Survey (USGS)
▪ Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
▪ Geological Society of America (GSA)
▪ National Ground Water Association (NGWA)
▪ Association of Groundwater Scientists and Engineers (AGWSE)
▪ International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS)
▪ American Institute of Hydrology (AIH)
▪ International Association of Hydrologists (IAH)
▪ International Association for Hydraulic Research (IAHR)
▪ American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Introduction
Groundwater: Profession/Science
▪ Selected Academic Journals
▪ Water Resources Research (AGU)
▪ Ground Water (NGWA)
▪ Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation (NGWA)
▪ Journal of Contaminant Hydrology
▪ Advances in Water Resources
▪ Journal of Hydrology
▪ Journal of Environmental Engineering (ASCE)
▪ Environmental Science and Technology (ES&T)
▪ Transport in Porous Media
▪ USGS Water Supply Papers
▪ Groundwater Models
▪ MODFLOW (PMWIN)
▪ FEFLOW by DHI
▪ Model Repository at the Integrated Groundwater Modeling Center
Introduction
Groundwater Science: A Historical Perspective
▪ 800 B.C. : groundwater exploitation by the ancients; early Greek
philosophers hypothesize the origin of groundwater
▪ 1500 A.D. : infiltration theory articulated – Palissy
▪ 1680 A.D. : empirical observations of hydraulic cycle; application of the
scientific method (e.g., Perrault Marriotte – Halley)
▪ 1859-1900 : principles of steady groundwater flow by Darcy and Dupuit
▪ 1879 : establishment of USGS
▪ 1900-1930 : field methods: Theim, Horton, Meinzer
▪ 1930-1950 : unsteady groundwater flow: Theis, Hantush, Forchheiner
▪ 1965-1975 : advent of computational hydrology; Renson, Pinder,
Bredhoeft (USGS), Freeze
▪ 1975-1985 : solute transport: Bear, Cherry (Waterloo), Dagan (Israel)
▪ 1985-Present : multiphase flow and reactive transport
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle
Global hydrologic cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle
Global hydrologic cycle

Source: Chow et al. (1988)

The Hydrologic Cycle
Global hydrologic cycle

Source: Chow et al. (1988)

The Hydrologic Cycle
Global hydrologic cycle

Source: Pinder and Celia (2006)

The Hydrologic Cycle
▪ Residence Time, t r – Average duration for a water molecule to pass
through a subsystem of the hydrologic cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle
▪ Residence Time, t r – Average duration for a water molecule to pass
through a subsystem of the hydrologic cycle

▪ Example: Residence time for fresh groundwater

The Hydrologic Cycle
▪ Residence Time, t r – Average duration for a water molecule to pass
through a subsystem of the hydrologic cycle

▪ Example: Residence time for fresh groundwater

The Hydrologic Cycle
▪ Residence Time, t r – Average duration for a water molecule to pass
through a subsystem of the hydrologic cycle

▪ Example: Residence time for fresh groundwater

Volume of freshwater in the world = 10,530,000 km³
Flow rate (runoff to ocean) = 2,200 km³/yr

10,530, 00
tr = = 4, 786 years
2, 200
The Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Equation
Simple statement of the law of mass conservation (water balance/budget)
The Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Equation
Simple statement of the law of mass conservation (water balance/budget)

Inputs = Outputs ± Changes in Storage

Inputs to an area: Outputs from an area: Changes in storage:

▪ Precipitation ▪ Evapotranspiration from land Changes in the volume of
▪ Surface water inflow to areas ▪ Surface water
area (runoff) ▪ Evaporation of surface water ▪ Soil moisture
▪ Groundwater inflow from ▪ Surface water runoff ▪ Ice and snow on surface
outside area ▪ Groundwater outflow ▪ Groundwater below
▪ Artificial import of water ▪ Artificial export of water surface
(pipes, canals) (pipes, canals)

▪ Can be applied to systems of any size; as applicable to a small

reservoir as it is for an entire continent
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater

Typical cross-section showing processes

Simplified cross-section
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Precipitation:
▪ Falls on land surface and surface water
▪ Given rain gauge measurements, find
average precipitation over an area
▪ Arithmetic Mean method Theissen Polygon:  Pi Ai
▪ Theissen Polygon method Weighted average = Atotal
▪ Isohyetal method

Arithmetic:
crude answer as no topo or Isohyetal
catchment area info Include knowledge of topo/geography
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evaporation
▪ Water is evaporated to water vapor from open water bodies, leaves and
other vegetated surfaces, and near surface soil moisture.
▪ Evaporation depends on many factors (e.g., water temp, air temp and
humidity above water, solar radiation, wind)
▪ Simple measurements using shallow land pans
▪ Pans will be warmed much more by solar radiation,
so pan coefficients are used
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evaporation:
▪ Modified Penman equation (Shuttleworth, 1993) describes evaporation
from an open water surface
m 
PE = ( Rn ) + (6.43(1 + 0.536  U 2 ) e )
(v )  m +  (v )  m + 
= Slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve (kPa/K) U 2 = wind speed (m/s)
m
= net incoming radiation (MJ/m²/day)  e = vapor pressure deficit (kPa)
Rn
= psychrometric constant (kPa/K) v = latent heat of vaporization (MJ/kg)

The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evaporation EXAMPLE: For a given shallow lake, the mean
daily air temperature Ta is 76°F. The solar
radiation is measured as 500 langley/day (1
Langley = 1 cal/cm²). The mean daily dew point
temperature is 50°F, and the wind movement at
six inches above the pan rim is 200 mi/day.
Using the nomograph for the shallow lake
evaporation, determine the daily lake
evaporation in inches.

Point 1 on the nomograph (Figure 2.1) shows

the point where Ta = 76°F and the solar
radiation is 500 langley/day. Point 2 is drawn at
the intersection of the curve of Ts = 50 °F and
Ta = 76°F . A vertical line is drawn from Point 2
to the curve representing wind movement equal
to 200 mi/day. This is Point 3. Point 4 is found
at the intersection of a horizontal line projected
from Point 3 and a vertical line from Point 1.
The daily lake evaporation is then read from the
graph as E = 0.25 inches/day
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Transpiration
▪ Soil water continuously pumping water from the ground into the
atmosphere drawn into plant roots.
▪ Accounts for most of the vapor loss from land-dominated basins
▪ Measurements typically occur in highly controlled lab conditions

Evapotranspiration
▪ Combination of ‘evaporation from land surfaces’ and ‘transpiration by
plants’
▪ Potential evapotranspiration (PET):
▪ Equal to the water loss which will occur if at no time there is a deficiency of
moisture in the soil
▪ Actual evapotranspiration (AET):
▪ Amount of ET that actually occurs under varying field conditions (i.e.,periods
of sufficient and insufficient available soil moisture)
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
PET vs AET
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (field plots, lysimeters)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates

(ti  pi ) K i (ti  pi )
ETp = K s im=1 or 
100 100
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates

(ti  pi ) K i (ti  pi )
ETp = K s im=1 or 
100 100
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates
Example: Estimate ETp for a corn field in
(ti  pi ) K i (ti  pi ) Kansas City, MS
ETp = K s im=1 or 
100 100 • 40° Latitude
• 4 month growing season (May to August)
 The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Evapotranspiration
▪ ET Estimation
Approaches for estimating ET:
1) Direct measurements (lysimeters, eddy covariance)
2) Pan coefficients (Kp)
3) Empirical approach: Blaney-Criddle Method
4) Adaptions of Penman equation for ET estimates (e.g., Penman-Monteith)

( Rn − G) + a c p ( e ) g a
ET =
( +  (1 + g a / g s )) Lv
 = rate of change of saturation specific humidity with air temperature (kPa/K) cp = specific heat capacity of air (J/kg/K)
Rn = net irradiance (W/m²) a = dry air density (kg/m³)
 = psychrometric constant (kPa/K) e = vapor pressure deficit (Pa)
G = ground heat flux (W/m²), usually difficult to measure ga = conductivity of air, atmospheric cond. (m/s)
gs = conductivity of stoma, surface cond. (m/s)
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Surface runoff or overland flow
▪ Rain or melting snow will drain across the
land surface

Infiltration
▪ Rain or melting snow will seep into pervious soil. Infiltration capacity
varies from soil to soil, and from dry to moist conditions in the same soil
The Hydrologic Cycle
Processes/fluxes affecting groundwater
Interflow
▪ Infiltrating water may move horizontally if
it encounters a more impermeable layer

Baseflow
▪ Groundwater discharging to a surface water body
Water Balance

Water Balance
Application examples:
Stormwater Management
Source: Kerr Wood Leidal
Examples:
Green roofs, bioretention cells
Groundwater Recharge
Source: India Water Portal
Examples:
Managed Aquifer Recharge
Aquifer Storage and Recovery
Waste Containment Covers
Examples:
Mine waste/landfill covers
Source: scalar.usc.edu
Climate and land-use changes
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
40

Elevation (m)
30 Waste Rock

20 Till

Bedrock
10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Distance (m)

Nova Scotia

Sydney
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
40

Elevation (m)
30 Waste Rock

20 Till

Bedrock
10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Distance (m)

Nova Scotia
Soil Cover over Waste Rock

Sydney
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
40

Elevation (m)
30 Waste Rock

20 Till

Bedrock
10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Distance (m)

Nova Scotia
Soil Cover over Waste Rock

Sydney

QUESTION: How well is the cover working? How much water is passing through?
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Rearrange the water balance to estimate water infiltration

PPT = AET + R + ΔS + IN

▪ PPT = precipitation (rainfall and snow)

Rain
▪ AET = actual evapotranspiration
▪ R = surface runoff AET

▪ ∆S = soil moisture storage Net Surface

Infiltration
▪ IN = infiltration of water (ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Monitoring instrumentation used to collect water balance parameters

LEGEND:
Meteorological Station
Weir
Soil Monitoring Station
Internal Monitoring Station
Surface Water Sampling Point
Toe Seep
Outline of WRP
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Monitoring instrumentation used to collect water balance parameters

Weather Station

Wind Speed/Direction

Net Radiation

Temperature/RH

Rainfall

Snow Depth
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Monitoring instrumentation used to collect water balance parameters

8 Monitoring
Stations

Water Content
Temperature
SS-4 Suction
Pore-Gas
SS-3
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Monitoring instrumentation used to collect water balance parameters
Weir

Eddy Covariance
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Evolution of key variables over time
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2014

Rain

AET

Net Surface
Infiltration
(ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock

In 2014, 57 mm of water infiltrated through the cover system into the waste
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2014

Rain

AET

Net Surface
Infiltration
(ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock

In 2014, 57 mm of water infiltrated through the cover system into the waste
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2014

Rain

AET

Net Surface
Infiltration
(ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock

In 2014, 57 mm of water infiltrated through the cover system into the waste
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2014

Rain

AET

Net Surface
Infiltration
(ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock

In 2014, 57 mm of water infiltrated through the cover system into the waste
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2014

Rain

AET

Net Surface
Infiltration
(ΔS) Change in
Moisture Storage

Net Percolation to
Waste Rock

In 2014, 377 mm of water infiltrated through the cover system into the waste
Before the cover? 434 mm.
Water Balance
CASE STUDY: Water Infiltration through Mine Waste Covers
Cumulative flux for each water balance component: 2012 - 2016
The Hydrologic Cycle
References
Chow VT, Maidment DR, Mays LW (1988) Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
ISBN 0-07-100174-3.
Fitts CR (2012) Groundwater Science. Second Edition. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-
384705-8.
Pinder GF, Celia MA (2006) Subsurface Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey. ISBN-13 978-0-471-74243-2.
Shuttleworth, WJ (1993) Evaporation. Chapter 4 in Handbook of Hydrology. Edited by DR
Madiment, McGraw-Hill, New York.