DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA-YABA, LAGOS

CEG 503 – SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY (2.0)

2017/2018 FIRST SEMESTER

ACADEMIC FELLOW/LECTURER
OLUFEMI ODUMOSU, B. Sc; M. Eng. Sc.
olufemiodumosu@yahoo.com

COURSE NOTES – LECTURE 1

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Introduction

Hydrology is simply defined as the study of water. Water which has the
chemical formula, H2O, is a transparent fluid readily found available in
streams, rivers, lakes, oceans and rain, and is the major constituent of the
fluids of living organisms.

As a chemical compound, a water molecule contains one oxygen and two

hydrogen atoms that are connected by covalent bonds.

Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often

co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice; and gaseous state, steam or water
vapor. It also exists as snow, fog, dew and clouds.

About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by Water which is vital for all
known forms of life.

On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's crust water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7%
in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and
Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air
as vapor, clouds formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air, and
precipitation.

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Only 2.5% of this water is Freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice
(excepting ice in clouds) and groundwater.

Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, and
an even smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is contained
within biological bodies and manufactured products. A greater quantity of
water is found in the earth's interior.

Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation

and transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and
runoff, usually reaching the sea.

Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land.

Water used in the production of a good or service is known as virtual water.

1.2 Science of Hydrology

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution,

movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship
with the environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.

In other words, Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement,

distribution, and quality of water on Earth, including the water cycle, water
resources and environmental watershed sustainability.

A practitioner of hydrology is a Hydrologist, working within the fields of

earth or environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil and
environmental engineering.

Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and
analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental
preservation, natural disasters, and water management.

Hydrology subdivides into Surface Water Hydrology, Groundwater

Hydrology (Hydrogeology), and Marine hydrology.

The domains of Hydrology include Hydrometeorology, Surface Hydrology,

Hydrogeology, Drainage-basin management and Water Quality, where
water plays the central role.

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Oceanography and Meteorology are not included because water is only one
of many important aspects within those fields.
Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the need to understand
the complex water systems so as to help solve water problems. Hydrologists
therefore play a vital role in finding solutions to water problems.

1.3 Surface Water Hydrology

Surface Water Hydrology is a field that encompasses all surface waters of

the Earth’s surface (Overland flows, Streams, Rivers, Lakes, Wetlands,
Estuaries, Oceans, etc.).

This is a component of the Hydrologic Cycle that does not include the
Atmospheric and Ground waters.

Surface Water Hydrology relates the dynamics of flow in surface water

systems (Rivers, Canals, Streams, Lakes, Ponds, Wetlands, Marshes, Creeks,
Oceans, etc.).

This includes the field measurement of flow (Discharge); the Statistical

Variability at each setting; Floods; Drought Susceptibility and the
development of the levels of risk; and the Fluid Mechanics of surface waters.

The in-depth analysis of Surface-water components of the Hydrologic Cycle

therefore includes Hydrometeorology, Evaporation/Transpiration, Rainfall-
Runoff relationships, Open-channel flow, Flood Hydrology, Fluid mechanics,
and Statistical and Probabilistic methods in Hydrology.

Surface Water Hydrology also includes the relation between Rainfall and
Surface runoff; this relationship is an important aspect of water resources
for Sewerage (wastewater or sewage), Drinking water, Agriculture
(Irrigation), Environmental protection, and for Flood Control.

Surface Water plays a very important role in water supply across the
country. A number of rivers and streams throughout Nigeria provide water
for public use, as well as being used in Irrigation and as a source of
Recreation and for Hydropower.

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Surface Water Hydrology includes the study of surface water movement and
the distribution of surface water in space and time.

Of particular interest is the variability in water quantity and flow within a

year and between years. This variability in water supply is largely influenced
by Climate.

Together with geographical characteristics such as Topography, Soils, and

Land Use, Hydrologic Variability affects the development and character of
surface water systems such as Lakes and Rivers.

1.4 Physical Properties of Water

Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found in all
three physical states; Liquid, Solid, and Gas; at the temperatures normally
found on Earth. It has a Density of 1gram/cubic centimetre

Water freezes at 0° Centigrade and boils at 100°C at sea level, but at a lower
temp at higher altitude. Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is less
dense than the liquid form, which is why ice floats.

Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances

than any other liquid. This means that wherever water goes, either through
the ground or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals,
minerals, and nutrients.

Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which is neither acidic (<7) nor basic (>7).

The water molecule is highly cohesive and is very sticky. Water is the most
cohesive among the non-metallic liquids.

Pure water, which you won't ever find in the natural environment, does not
conduct electricity. Water becomes a conductor once it starts dissolving
substances around it.

Water has a high specific heat index; it absorbs a lot of heat before it begins
to get hot. This is why water is valuable to Industries and usually used in
car's radiator as a coolant. The high specific heat index of water also helps
regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is why the

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temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than sudden,
especially near the oceans.

Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is sticky and
elastic, and tends to clump together in drops rather than spread out in a thin
film, like rubbing alcohol. Surface tension is responsible for capillary action,
which allows water (and its dissolved substances) to move through the
roots of plants and through tiny blood vessels of our bodies.

The density of water means that sound moves through it long distances. In
sea water at 30°C, sound has a velocity of 1,545 meters per second.

Air pressure affects the boiling point of water, which is why it takes longer
to boil an egg at Idanre Hills or Jos Plateau than at the Lagos Beach. The
higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure, the lower the boiling point of
water, and thus, the longer time to hard-boil an egg. At sea level water boils
at 100°C, while at 1,700metres, water boils at 94.9 °C.

1.5 The Hydrological Cycle

The Hydrological Cycle

Diagram of the Hydrological Cycle

The continuous movement of water on and below the earth's surface, and
between the earth and the atmosphere, is known as the “hydrologic cycle”.
Water exists in many forms as it circulates within the hydrologic cycle.

Water present on the earth’s surface is called surface water. Water beneath
the earth’s surface is called groundwater, while water vapour is called
atmospheric water.

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Water from the atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface as precipitation in
the form of rain, snow, hail, and sleet. After reaching the earth’s surface,
water follows a combination of potential paths, including:
 Infiltration into the soil, and potentially percolation through the soil to
become Groundwater;
 Storage as water in Lakes, Wetlands or Oceans, or storage as Snow or
Ice;
 Collection as surface water runoff moving downstream in a path
through streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands; or
 Evaporation from soil and water surfaces, or evaporation and
transpiration from vegetation (evapotranspiration), to become
atmospheric water. Water in the atmosphere is available to form
precipitation as it cools and condenses, thereby completing the
hydrologic cycle.

The Hydrological Cycle describes the continuous movement of water on,

above and below the surface of the Earth.

The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the
partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline
water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of
climatic variables.

The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean,
or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and
subsurface flow.

In doing so, the water goes through different phases: Liquid, Solid (ice) and
Vapour.

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to

temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up
energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it
condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate.

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes
the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports

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minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological
features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and
sedimentation.

The Water Cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and
ecosystems on the planet

Water is one of the most important valuable natural resources. No water, no

life. The amount of water available for use is limited by nature. There is
always plenty of water on Earth; it may not always be in the right place, at
the right time and of the right quality.

In addition to this, there is the increasing evidence that chemical wastes

improperly discarded easily showed up in due course into the water bodies.

The Hydrological cycle or Water cycle is a continuous process by which

water is purified by evaporation and transported from the earth's surface
(including the oceans) to the atmosphere and back to the land and oceans.

Water in its travels through various paths in the atmosphere, over and
beneath the earth's surface and through growing plants, undergoes
physical, chemical and biological processes which are of interest in the
hydrologic cycle observation.

There are many pathways the water may take in its continuous cycle of
falling as rainfall or snowfall and returning to the atmosphere. It may be
captured for millions of years in polar ice caps.

It may flow directly to rivers and finally to the sea. It may soak into the soil
to be evaporated directly from the soil surface as it dries or be transpired by
growing plants.

It may percolate through the soil into aquifers or ground water reservoirs to
be stored or it may flow to wells or springs or back to streams by seepage.

The water cycle may be short, or it may take long in years.

Water is diverted temporarily for different uses, from one part of the cycle
by pumping it from the ground or drawing it from a river or lake. It is used
for a variety of activities such as in domestic and households, businesses and

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industries; for irrigation of farms and parklands; and for generation of hydro-
electric power.

After use, water is returned to another part of the cycle, perhaps discharged
downstream or allowed to soak into the ground.

Used water normally is lower in quality, even after treatment, which often
poses a problem for downstream users.

1.6 Hydrological Processes

Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water

1.6.1 Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation
occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.

1.6.2 Canopy Interception

The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates
back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

1.6.3 Snowmelt - The runoff produced by melting snow.

1.6.4 Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes
both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into
the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or
be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

1.6.5 Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated,
the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. A recent global study
using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is
equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.

1.6.6 Subsurface flow

The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers.
Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being
pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land
surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of

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gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and
is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

1.6.7 Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the
ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of
energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often
implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are
specifically referred to as Evapotranspiration.

1.6.8 Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water of snow or ice into water vapor.

1.6.9 Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.

1.6.10 Advection
The movement of water; in solid, liquid, or vapor states through the
atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans
could not precipitate over land.

1.6.11 Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air,
creating clouds and fog.

1.6.12 Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a
gas that cannot be seen.

1.6.13 Percolation
Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of
gravity

1.6.14 Plate Tectonics - Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic
crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.

The Water cycle thus involves many of the intermediate processes.

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1.7 Sources of Water

There are three main sources of water:

 Rain
 Surface Water: Oceans, Rivers and streams, Tanks, Ponds & Lakes
 Ground Water: Shallow wells, Deep wells, Springs

1.7.1 Rain
This is the primary source of all water. A part of the rain water sinks into the
ground to form ground water; part of it evaporates back into atmosphere,
and some runs off to form streams and rivers which flow ultimately into the
sea.

Some of the water in the soil is taken up by the plants and is evaporated in
turn by the leaves.

1.7.1.1 Characteristics of rain water:

Rain water is the purest water in nature. Physically, it is clear, bright and
sparkling. Chemically, it is very soft water containing only traces of dissolved
solids (0.0005 percent).
Being soft, it has a corrosive action on lead pipes. Bacteriologically, rain
water from clean districts is free from pathogenic agents.

1.7.1.2 Impurities of rain water:

Rain water tends to become impure as it passes through the atmosphere. It
picks up suspended impurities from the atmosphere such as dust, soot and
microorganisms and gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and
ammonia.

Gaseous sulphur and nitrogen oxides are emitted from power plants that
use fossil fuels. These gases react with atmospheric water, forming dilute
solution of sulphuric and nitric acid. The precipitation of these acids (acid
rain) has begun to have serious impacts on surface water quality and on
plants etc.

1.7.2 Surface Water

Surface water originates from rain water. It is the main source of water
supply in many areas. Examples of surface water include rivers, tanks, lakes,
man-made reservoirs and sea water.

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Surface water is prone to contamination from human and animal sources. As
such it is never safe for human consumption unless subjected to sanitary
protection and purification before use.

1.7.2.1 Characteristics of surface water

Surface water picks up the characteristics of the surface over which it
passes. If water flows across a parking lot, gasoline, oil, and other
contaminants may be carried by or dissolved into the water.

Water may pick up fertilizers, road salts, radioactivity, and biological

contaminant from farms, as well as countless other biological, physical, and
chemical pollutants.

1.7.3 Rivers:
Many rivers furnish a dependable supply of water. The chief drawback of
river water is that it is always grossly polluted and is quite unfit for drinking
without treatment.

1.7.3.1 Characteristics of river water:

River water is turbid during rainy season; it may be clear in other seasons.
Clarity of water is no guarantee that the river water is safe for drinking.
River water contains dissolved and suspended impurities of all kinds. The
bacterial count, including the human intestinal organisms may be very high.

1.7.3.2 Impurities of river water:

The impurities of river water are derived from surface washings, sewage and
sullage water, industrial and trade wastes, and drainage from agricultural
areas.

1.7.3.3 Self-purification of river water:

Certain amount of self-purification occur in river water by natural forces of
purification such as dilution, sedimentation, aeration, oxidation, sunlight,
plant and animal life ,but these agencies are not sufficient to render the
water potable. River water needs purification before it can be used for
drinking purposes.

1.7.4 Sea water:

Though this source is plentiful, it has great many limitations. It contains 3.5
percent of salts in solution. Desalting and demineralization process involves
heavy expenditure. It adopted in places where sea water is the only source

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available.

1.7.5 Groundwater
Rain water percolating into ground constitutes Ground Water. Water used
by humans comes mainly from land. It is now realised that there is a limit to
ground water in the world.

Ground water is the cheapest and most practical means of providing water
to small communities. Ground water is superior to surface water, because
the ground itself provides an effective filtering medium.

1.7.5.1 The advantages of ground water are:

 It is likely to be free from pathogenic agents;
 It usually requires no treatment;
 The supply is likely to be certain even during dry season;
 It is less subject to contamination than surface water.

1.7.5.2 The disadvantages of ground water are:

 It is high in mineral content, e.g., salts of calcium and magnesium which
increase the water hard;
 It requires pumping or some arrangement to lift the water.

1.7.6 Wells:
Traditionally wells are an important source of water supply. Even today, they
are an important source of water supply in many communities.

Technically, wells are of two kinds-shallow and deep.

 Shallow wells: shallow wells tap subsoil water i.e. the water from
above the first impervious layer in the ground. They provide limited
quantities of water, and the water is easy to be polluted unless care is
taken in well construction.
 Deep wells:
A deep well is one which taps water from the water-bearing stratum
below the first impervious layer in the ground. Deep wells are usually
machine-dug and may be several hundred meters deep. Deep wells
furnish the safest water, and are often the most satisfactory sources
of water supply.

1.7.7 Springs:
When ground water comes to the surface and flows freely under natural

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pressure, it is called a "spring". Springs may be of two types; Shallow springs
and Deep springs. Shallow springs dry up quickly during summer months,
whereas deep springs do not show seasonal fluctuations in the flow of
water.

In some geographic areas, springs constitute an important source of water.

Springs are simpler to exploit, as no pumping is needed to bring the water
to the surface. Springs are exposed to contamination.

1.8 Hydrologic Characteristics

Descriptions of hydrologic characteristics are usually defined for a particular

location along the course of a stream or river.

Annual Hydrographs are Graphs that show changes in flow over the year at
a specific location. Using a Hydrograph, it is possible to show flow variation
and to identify periods of high flows and low flows. Data collected to
describe flows are called Hydrometric Data.

A range of hydrologic indicators is often used to describe normal and

extreme flow conditions. Some of the indicators commonly used include:
 Discharge, the flow passing a particular cross-section of the river
channel, measured in cubic meters per second (m3/s).
 Maximum flow, the highest flow recorded for a particular day from all
years of flow records.
 Minimum flow, the lowest flow recorded for a particular day from all
years of flow records.
 Median flow, the recorded flow value at which 50% of recorded flows
for a particular day are greater, and 50% of recorded flows are lower.
 Upper quartile, the recorded flow value at which 25% of recorded
flows for a particular day are greater, and 75% of recorded flows are
lower.
 Lower quartile, the recorded flow value at which 75% of recorded
flows for a particular day are greater, and 25% of recorded flows are
lower.

Hydrometric monitoring (the collection of information to describe surface

water conditions) is often done through a combination of field work and the
use of remote monitoring equipment. Specialized field personnel often
measure discharge at stations throughout the year to establish a

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relationship between water flow and water levels at a specific site. This
relationship is called a rating curve.

Continuous water level recording instruments installed at the station can

provide water level data, which are then used in combination with the rating
curves to compute a set of daily discharge data. Data from these sites
provide valuable information for use in hydrologic assessments.

1.9 The Drainage Basin

A Drainage Basin, or Watershed, is “the area enclosed by a topographic

divide such that surface runoff drains by gravity into a river, lake, or other
water body”.

Drainage basins are often described as the area that contributes flow
upstream of the mouth, or confluence, of a watercourse.

A drainage basin can also be defined by the area upstream of a point where
hydrometric (streamflow) data are measured, or upstream of a particular
point of interest.

Rivers and the watersheds they drain are interconnected and

interdependent. Because of this interconnection and linkages between
upstream and downstream ecosystems, drainage basins provide a useful
unit for considering and managing most environmental systems.

Basins occur at a variety of scales, with smaller basins (known as sub-basins)

included within the basins of larger streams or rivers. Seen from above, river
systems often display a tree-like pattern, with many small streams feeding
into fewer larger rivers and eventually into one very large river.

A stream flowing into a larger river is called a tributary to that river.

For example, the Oyan River basin includes land—mountains, plains, towns,
agricultural land, and forest—that drain to the Ogun River upstream. The
Oyan River basin includes the smaller basins of tributaries; these smaller
basins are sub-basins of the Oyan River watershed. In turn, these sub-basins
contain still smaller catchments.

Drainage basins can be described by a number of characteristics, including:

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 Size (area contributing flow, measured in km2). Rivers with larger
drainage areas tend to combine the flow effects of numerous
conditions found throughout the basin. Larger drainage basins tend to
have greater variation in simultaneous weather conditions, and are
usually less responsive to specific precipitation events.

 Terrain. In basins with steep terrain, a high proportion of precipitation

may become surface flow, which is rapidly delivered to the river
system. Flat terrain generally experiences more soil percolation and
may contain more wetland areas, which store water.

 Climate. The amount of water delivered to the river system in the

form of precipitation, the temperature that determines the type of
precipitation, and the amount of evaporation are examples of climate
effects on river flow patterns.

 Elevation. Elevation can affect climate (temperature and

precipitation) and the storage of water as snow or ice.

 Aspect (terrain orientation). Aspect can affect snowmelt and the

amount of evaporation, with south-facing slopes more exposed to the
sun’s influence than north-facing slopes.

 Soils. Soil type affects the amount of water that can infiltrate the soil.
Impervious surfaces (such as rock) within a drainage basin can lead to
more surface water flow than in basins with more absorptive soils.

 Storage. Drainages with a greater proportion of lakes and wetlands

tend to be less responsive to precipitation events due to potential
water storage.

 Vegetation and Land Use. Vegetation and land use affect the amount
of water reaching the river channel. Evaporation and transpiration
from vegetation (evapotranspiration) return moisture to the
atmosphere, while uptake of water and anchoring of soil by
vegetation can reduce surface water runoff and erosion, respectively.

 Human Influences. Water diversions, withdrawals and discharges are

potential human influences that can affect the water balance of a

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 drainage basin. Features such as Dams affect the natural flow regime
of a river, resulting in changes to both the seasonal and yearly
variations in water flow. Human impacts on vegetative cover and land
use within the drainage basin can affect infiltration and runoff
patterns.

1.10 Fundamentals Equation of Hydrology

Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy

In theory, we use "first principles" to evaluate hydrologic events and

processes.
i.e.

i. Conservation of Mass (Continuity)

ii. Conservation of Momentum (Newton's 2nd Law)

iii. Conservation of Energy (2nd Law of Thermodynamics)

iv. Equation of State (PV = nRT) for Gases

Continuity
INFLOWS - OUTFLOWS = STORAGE

An inventory of all sources, sinks, and storages is a Water Budget.

Transport Mechanisms
i. Energy a. Potential b. Kinetic c. Heat
ii. Mass
iii. Momentum

Introduction to hydraulic design must start with understanding of the

hydrologic cycle. (Storages and Transport Processes)

Hydrologic systems are quite complex but behaves according to 3 elemental

laws of nature the so called conservation laws:

Conservation of Mass (Continuity) - closed system

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Qmass = QIn mass - QOut mass = Storage mass/t
Inventory of sources, sinks, and storages = Water Budget

Conservation of Momentum (Newton's 2nd Law)

Forces = F = dM/dt ( momentum)

Conservation of Energy (2nd Law of Thermodynamics)

Inenergy (work) - Outused energy = Storage = E/ t

1.11 Role and Importance of Hydrology in Civil and Environmental

Engineering

The scientific knowledge and mathematical principles in Hydrology is

applicable to solve water-related problems in terms of quantity, quality and
availability. This may be connected with source of water supplies for
urbanised cities or Irrigated Agricultural farms, or controlling river flooding
or soil erosion and watershed management.

Hydrology similarly plays important role in environmental protection:

preventing or cleaning up pollution or locating sites for safe disposal of
hazardous wastes, in collection of basic data and testing of water quality,
and interpreting hydrologic data and performing analyses for determining
possible water supplies.

Hydrological work with application of computers facilitates organizing,

summarizing and analyzing masses of data, and for modeling studies such as
the prediction of flooding and the consequences of reservoir releases or the
effect of leaking underground oil storage tanks.

The Hydrologist studies the fundamental transport processes to be able to

describe the quantity and quality of water as it moves through the cycle
(evaporation, precipitation, streamflow, infiltration, ground water flow, and
other components).

The Engineering Hydrologist, or Water Resources Engineer, is involved in the

planning, analysis, design, construction and operation of projects for the
control, utilization, and management of water resources.

Water resources problems in a multidisciplinary are also the concern of

meteorologists, oceanographers, geologists, chemists, physicists, biologists,

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economists, political scientists, specialists in applied mathematics and
computer science, and engineers in several fields.

Most cities meet their needs for water by withdrawing it from the nearest
river, lake or reservoir. The role of Hydrology in this case is to facilitate
collection and analyses of the data needed to predict how much water is
available from local supplies and whether it will be sufficient to meet the
city's projected future needs.
In carrying out such task, Hydrological records of rainfall and river flows
collected are compiled by hydrologists in various government agencies in an
inventory and assessment of the extent of river flow and its being used.

Managing reservoirs can be quite complex, because they generally serve

many purposes. Reservoirs increase the reliability of local water supplies.
Hydrologists use topographic maps and aerial photographs to determine
where the reservoir shorelines will be and to calculate reservoir depths and
storage capacity.

Hydrologists collect the necessary information, enter it into a computer, and

run computer models to predict the results under various operating
strategies. On the basis of these studies, reservoir managers can make the
best decision for those involved.

Hydrologists assist public health officials in monitoring public water supplies

to ensure that health standards are met. When pollution is discovered,
environmental engineers work with hydrologists in devising the necessary
sampling program.

Water quality in estuaries, streams, rivers and lakes must be monitored, and
the health of fish, plants and wildlife along their stretches surveyed. Simple
analyses such as pH, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen content may be done
by hydrologists in the field.

Hydrologists estimate the volume of water stored underground by

measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records
from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness of water-
bearing sediments and rocks.

Before an investment is made in full-sized wells, Hydrologists may supervise

the drilling of test wells. The depth at which water is encountered is noted

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and collection of samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses are
made and a variety of geophysical tests on the completed borehole is run to
keep accurate log of the observations and test results.

Hydrologists determine the most efficient pumping rate by monitoring the

extent that water levels drop in the pumped well and in its nearest
neighbours.

In the coastal areas, overpumping can cause saltwater intrusion. By plotting

and analyzing these data, hydrologists can estimate the maximum and
optimum yields of the well.

Hydrologists provide guidance in the location of monitoring wells around

waste disposal sites and sample them at regular intervals to determine if
undesirable leachate--contaminated water containing toxic or hazardous
chemicals--is reaching the ground water. In polluted areas, Hydrologists may
collect soil and water samples to identify the type and extent of
contamination.

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