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Unit Hydrograph: Concepts, Estimation Methods and Applications in

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Research Article Volume 10 Issue No.6

Unit Hydrograph: Concepts, Estimation Methods and Applications in

Hydrological Sciences
Adeyi, G. O.1, Adigun, A. I.2 , Onyeocha, N. C.3, Okeke, O. C.4
Department of Nautical Science, Maritime Academy of Nigeria, Oron, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria1, 2
Department of Geology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria3, 4

Abstract:
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph of surface runoff resulting from a relatively short, intense rain, called a unit storm. It is an essential
hydrological tool for predicting flood peak discharges and determines the direct runoff response to rainfall. Both gauged and
ungauged basins as well as basin characteristics (drainage area, slope, etc.) are considered. The analysis of unit hydrograph
procedures and mathematical formulas for determining these characteristics are also described. The methods employed in the work
include; the S-curve or summation curve, instantaneous unit hydrograph, and synthetic unit hydrograph. S-curve is the hydrograph of
direct surface discharge that would result from a continuous succession of unit storm producing 1cm tr-hr (duration of the unit
hydrograph (hr)). The instantaneous involves harmonic analysis of the rainfall excess and direct runoff, treating incremental rainfall as
an individual storm. The synthetic methods are based on models of watershed, hydrograph characteristics and dimensionless unit
hydrograph. Synthetic methods commonly used and which are used in this work are; Snyder, Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and
Gray method. The application of unit hydrograph in estimating design flood is of great importance in dam construction.

Keywords: Hydrograph, Flood peak, Design flood, Watershed.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In many parts of the world, rainfall and runoff data are seldom
adequate to determine a unit hydrograph of a basin or watershed.
This situation is common in Nigeria due to lack of gauging
stations along most of the rivers and streams. Generally, basic
stream flow and rainfall data are not available for planning and
designing water management facilities and other hydraulic
structures in undeveloped watershed. Straub et. al. (2000) simply
defined unit hydrograph as a discharge time graph (hydrograph)
of a unit volume of direct runoff resulting from a spatially
uniform distributed effective precipitation with a uniform
intensity over a given duration. Bedient and Huber (2002)
defined unit hydrograph as basin outflow resulting from 1.0 inch
of direct runoff generated uniformly over the drainage area at a
uniform rainfall rate during a specific period of rainfall duration.
The unit hydrograph is essentially a hydrological tool for
predicting flood peak discharges and determine the direct runoff
response to rainfall. Viessman et.al. (1989) defined a watershed
as a land area that contributes surface runoff to any point of
interest. Unit hydrographs are determined for any basin by
examining the flood hydrographs of record on the basin,
together with the intensity graph of the rain which produces the
flood. The principles that constitute the unit hydrograph; a unit
storm; and a distribution graph. This theory along with
Bernard’s distribution graph provides a most useful tool for the
determination of rainfall excess. The most important concept
involved in the unit hydrograph theory is that all unit storms,
regardless of their magnitudes produce nearly identical
distribution graphs. Thus, once a distribution graph is derived
for a drainage basin, it serves as a means of converting any
expected volume of surface runoff into a hydrograph of river
discharge (Wiser, 1959). The unit hydrograph can be developed
for both gauged and ungauged basin. For gauged basins, unit
hydrographs can be derived from observed data by measuring
the concurrent rainfall and runoff amounts for the storms. For
ungauged basin, some synthetic methods are used to determine
the unit hydrographs. In most watersheds in Nigeria, there is
considerable lack of data with regard to rainfall and river
discharges. A unit hydrograph, also commonly known as unit
graph, is the simplest but at the same time very powerful tool for
hydrographical analysis. It may also be defined as the direct
runoff (outflow) hydrograph resulting from one unit of effective
rainfall which is uniformly distributed over the basin and which
occurs at a uniform rate during a specified period of time known
as unit time or unit duration. Unit hydrograph is also defined as
the hydrograph of storm runoff resulting from an isolated
rainfall of some unit duration occurring uniformly over the
entire area of the catchment, produce a unit volume (i.e. 1cm) of
runoff. The effective rainfall for the purpose of a hydrograph is
that portion of rainfall which contributes to the direct run off,
however, it has different meanings to different people depending
upon their area of interest e.g. to a canal irrigation engineer, it
may mean the rainfall which reaches to the storage reservoir
directly and by surface runoff from surrounding areas indirectly.
Similarly, to an agriculturist it is that portion of rainfall which
directly satisfies crop water needs and also the surface runoff
which can be used for crop production. The unit quantity of
effective rainfall is taken as 1cm and the outflow hydrograph is
expressed by discharge in cumecs. The unit duration may be 1
hour, 2 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours or so, depending upon the size
of the catchment, storm characteristics and operational facilities.
Therefore, the unit duration cannot be more than the time of
concentration or basin lag or period of rise. However, based on
the definition of a unit hydrograph it is evident that two basic
conditions must be satisfied;

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i. Effective rainfall should be uniformly distributed over the
basin i.e. if there are five raingauges in the basin, which
represent the real distribution of rainfall over the basin, then all
the five raingauges should record almost same amount of rainfall
during the specific time.
ii. Effective rainfall should be at a uniform rate during the unit
duration chosen for consideration i.e. if the average rainfall over
a particular basin during 6 hours is 126mm, then unit
hydrograph of 6 hours duration can be derived only if the
intensity of rainfall is 2/mm/hour throughout the basin.
The following are the basic assumptions of unit hydrograph
(Chow,1964)
1. The unit hydrograph theory assumes the principle of time
invariance. This assumption means that the direct runoff
hydrograph from a given drainage basin to a given pattern of
effective rainfall will be always same irrespective of the time,
i.e. although the basin characteristics change with season etc, the
unit hydrograph remains the same in its make-up.
2. Unit hydrograph theory assumes the principle of Linearity,
superimposition or proportionality. It means that:
i. If the ordinates of a unit hydrograph of say 1 hour duration are
0.1,6, 4, 3,2, 1.0 units, respectively, then the effective rainfall of
Figure.2.1. Elements of unit hydrograph (Raghunath, 2006)
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2 units falling in 1 hour will produce a direct runoff hydrograph
having ordinates of 0.2,12,8,6,4,2.0 units, and
ii. If the effective rainfall of 2 units occurs in 2 hours. i.e. 1 unit
per hour, then the direct runoff hydrograph ordinates will be
obtained by summing up the corresponding ordinates of the two
unit hydrographs shifted by 1 hour.
The unit hydrograph is not accurate enough for the prediction of
Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH). This is because the rainfall-
runoff relationship is affected by the basin area. Other
limitations to the use of unit hydrographs are:
Precipitation must be from rainfall only. Snow-melt run-off
cannot be satisfactory represented by unit-hydrograph approach.
The catchment should not have unusual large storage in terms
of tanks, ponds, large flood-bank storage etc. which affect the
direct relationship between run-off and discharge and
If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform unit
hydrographs, cannot be expected to give the deserved result.
2.0. Concepts of Unit Hydrograph
2.1. Elements of Unit Hydrograph
The various elements of a unit hydrograph are shown in Fig 2.1
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Base width (T): This is the period of direct surface runoff (due
to unit storm) of the unit hydrograph.
Unit storm: This is the storm of unit duration (i.e. duration of
the unit hydrograph) regardless of its intensity.
Unit period: This is the time duration of the unit storm (i.e. the
duration of the unit hydrograph).
Lag time (tp): This is the time from the centre of a unit storm to
the peak discharge of the corresponding unit hydrograph.
Recession time (Tr): This is the duration of the direct surface
runoff after the end of the excess or net rainfall.
2.2 Hydrograph Components
Total stream flow during a precipitation event includes the
baseflow existing in the basin prior to the storm and the runoff
due to the given storm precipitation. Total streamflow
hydrographs are usually conceptualized as being composed of;
Figure.2.2. Schematic Description of Hydrograph (Ramirez, 2000)
Schematically in fig.2.2, the stream flow hydrograph is
subdivided into:
(a) Rising Limb: rising portion of the hydrograph composed
mostly of surface runoff.
(b) Crest: Zone of the hydrograph around peak discharge
(c) Final (or Recession) Limb: Portion of the hydrograph after
the peak discharge, composed mostly of water released from
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(a) Direct Runoff, which is composed of contributions from
surface runoff and quick interflow. Unit hydrograph analysis
refers only to direct runoff.
(b) Base flow, which is composed of contributions from delayed
interflow and groundwater runoff.
Surface runoff includes all overland flow as well as all
precipitation falling directly onto stream channels. Surface
runoff is the main contributor to the peak discharge. Interflow is
the portion of the stream flow contributed by infiltrated water
that moves laterally in the subsurface until it reaches a channel.
Interflow is a slower process than surface runoff.
Components of interflow are quick interflow, which contributed
to direct runoff, and delayed interflow, which contributes to base
flow (Chow, 1964). Groundwater runoff is the flow component
contributed to the channel by groundwater. This process is
extremely slow as compared to surface runoff.
storage in the basin. The lower part of this recession corresponds
to groundwater flow contributions.
2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrograph Shape
1) Drainage characteristics:
basin area, basin shape, basin slope, soil type and land use,
drainage density, and drainage network topology. Most changes
in land use tend to increase the amount of runoff for a given
storm (Chow et al., 1988; Singh, 1989; Bras, .1990).
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2)Rainfall characteristics:
Rainfall intensity, duration, and their spatial and temporal
distribution; and storm motion, as storms moving in the general
downstream direction tend to produce large peak flows than
storm moving upstream (Chow et. al.,1988; Singh, 1989; Bras,
1990).
2.4. Propositions of the Unit Hydrograph
The following are the basic propositions of the unit hydrograph;
(i) Same runoff duration: For all unit storms of different
intensities, the period of surface runoff (i.e., tune base, base
width or base period) is approximately the same, although they
produce different runoff volume.
(ii) Proportion ordinates: For unit storms of different intensities,
the ordinates of the hydrographs at any given time, are in the
same proportion as the rainfall intensities.
(iii) Principles of superposition: If there is a continuous storm
and/or isolated storms of uniform intensity net rain, they may be
divided into unit storms and hydrographs of runoff for each
storm obtained, and the ordinates added with the appropriate
time lag to get the combined hydrograph.
(iv) Same distribution percentage: If the total period of surface
runoff (i.e. time base or base width) is divided into equal time
intervals, the percentage of surface runoff that occurs during
each of these periods will be same for all unit storms of different
intensities.
2.5 Transposition of unit hydrograph
If unit hydrographs are available for several areas adjacent to a
basin for which a necessary data are lacking, then transposition
of available unit hydrograph will ordinarily give better results
than resorting to a wholly synthetic procedure. Sherman
originally proposed that the ordinates and abscissas of a unit
hydrograph for similar basin might be assumed to be
proportional to the square root of the respective drainage areas.
3.0. METHODS OF ESTIMATING UNIT HYDROGRAPH
A flood hydrograph for a basin can be simulated by using a unit
hydrograph, defined as the direct runoff from a storm that
produces 1 inch of rainfall excess. Rainfall excess is the portion
of total rainfall, after interception by vegetation and infiltration
into the land surface that is direct overland runoff to streams.
The principal concept underlying the application of a unit
hydrograph is that each basin has one unit hydrograph that does
not change (in terms of its shape) unless the basin characteristics
change. Because the physical characteristics (such as drainage
area, slope, etc) of a basin typically remain unchanged, changes
in the unit hydrograph usually reflect changes in land-use
patterns. Given that the unit hydrograph does not change in
shape and represents streamflow response to 1 inch of runoff
(rainfall excess) within a basin, flood hydrographs for actual
storms can be simulated by multiplying the discharge ordinates
from a unit hydrograph by the rainfall excess computed from the
observed rainfall record.
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The methods used in unit hydrograph estimation include:
3.1 S-curve Method
S-curve or the summation curve is the hydrograph of direct
surface discharge that would result from a continuous succession
of unit storms producing 1cm in tr-hr (duration of the unit graph
(hr)). An S-hydrograph represents the response of the basin to an
effective rainfall event of infinite duration. Assume that a unit
hydrograph (UH) of duration D is known and that an UH for the
same basin but of duration D1 is desired. The first step is to
determine the S-curve hydrograph by adding a series of (known)
UH’s of duration D, each lagged by a time interval D. The
resulting superposition represents the runoff resulting from a
continuous rainfall excess of intensity 1/D. Lagging the S-curve
in time by an amount D1 and subtracting its ordinates from the
original unmodified S-curve yields a hydrograph corresponding
to a rainfall event of intensity 1/D and of duration D 1.
Consequently, to convert this hydrograph whose volume is D1/D
into a unit hydrograph of duration D1, its ordinates must be
normalized by multiplying them by D/D 1. The resulting
ordinates represent a unit hydrograph associated with an
effective rainfall of duration D1.
3.2. Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) Method
The IUH is a hydrograph of runoff resulting from the
instantaneous application of 1cm net rain on the drainage basin.
IUH method was described by O’ Donnell (1960) and it involves
harmonic analysis of the rainfall excess and direct runoff,
treating incremental rainfall (having a duration equal to the data
recording interval) as an individual storm to produce an
instantaneous unit hydrograph. The O’ Donnell (1960) method
has been used in a number of previous USGS unit-hydrograph
investigations (Inman, 1987: Bohman, 1990, 1992; Mason and
Bales, 1996; Dillow, 1998) and has been coded into a series of
FORTRAN computer programs.
3.3. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Method
Methods for synthesising hydrographs for ungauged areas have
been developed from time to time by Bernard Clark, McCarthy
and Snyder. Synthetic unit hydrograph procedures can be
categorized as (Chow et.al., 1988);
• Those based on models of watershed storage (Nash, 1957,
1958,1959; Dooge, 1959)
• Those relating hydrograph characteristics (time to peak, peak
flowetc.)to watershed characteristics (Snyder1938; Geomor
phologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph)
• Those based on a dimensionless unit hydrograph (Soil
Conservation Service, 1972)
However, the synthetic methods that are commonly used in the
generation of unit hydrograph for watershed include; Snyder’s,
SCS and Gray’s method.
3.3.1. Snyder’s Method
Among several known methods for the development of synthetic
unit hydrograph, the one suggested by F.F. Snyder (1938) is
most commonly used. The Snyder’s method was used to
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compute the unit hydrograph characteristics such as lag time or
basin lag, unit-hydrograph duration, peak discharge, time base or
base period, and hydrograph time widths at 50 and 75% of peak
flow. Determination of all these parameters allows for the
development of unit hydrographs. Snyder considered the shape
and area of the basin and gave the following empirical equations
after analysing a large number of hydrographs from drainage
basins of areas from 25 to 25000 km2 (Arora, 2004). Lag time
or basin lag: The lag time was defined as the time from the
center of mass of effective rainfall to the peak rate of flow
(Viessman et al., 1989).
The basin lag is given by:
(1)
where tp = the basin lag (hours), Ct = a coefficient which
depends upon the characteristics of the basin, L = length of the
main stream of the catchment (km), Lc = distance from the
basin outlet to a point on the stream which is nearest to the
centroid of the area of the basin(km).
Unit- hydrograph duration: The duration of rainfall excess for
Snyder’s synthetic unit- hydrograph development is a function
of lag time. The unit duration of the storm was given as follows
(Arora, 2004).
(2)
Where tr = the unit duration of the storm (hours), tp = the basin
lag (hours). If the unit hydrograph of another duration t r’ is
required, Equation (1) for the basin lag is modified as follows
(Arora, 2004).
tp’ = tp + ( tr’ - tr ) (3)
where tp’ = the basin lag for a storm of duration tr’.
Peak discharge: Peak discharge is the highest volume of runoff
over the basin. It is a function of the hydrographic time relation
parameters. The determination and knowledge of peak discharge
is very crucial to hydraulic designs and flood characteristics in
basins.
(4)
The peak discharge is given by the equation below (Arora,
2004).
(5)
where: Qp =the peak discharge (m3/s), Cp = the coefficient
which depends upon the retention and storage characteristics of
the basin (Values of Cp varies from 0.3 to 0.93). A = area of the
basin (km2); tp = the basin lag (hours). Also, the peak discharge
per unit area is given by: If an X-hr unit hydrograph is required
or desired, equation (4) for the peak discharge is modified as
follows:
(6)
and
(7)
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Time base or base period: The time base of a hydrograph is the
time from which the concentration curve (rising portion of a
hydrograph) begins until the direct runoff component reaches
zero. The base period (T) of the unit hydrograph is given by:
(8)
where: T = the base period (days), tp= the basin lag (hours).
Equation (8) above can be modified as follows:
(9)
Hydrograph time widths at 50 and 75% of peak flow: As a
general rule of thumb, the time width at W 50 and W75 ordinates
should be proportioned each side of the peak in a ratio of 1:2
with the short time side on the left of the synthetic unit-
hydrograph peak (Viessman et al., 1989). U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers gave the following expressions for W 50 and W75
(Arora, 2004; Mustafa and Yusuf, 2012).
(10)
(11)
3.3.2. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method
The SCS method is a method developed by the soil conservation
service for constructing synthetic unit hydrographs which is
based on a dimensionless hydrograph, and which relates ratios
of time to ratios of flow. This dimensionless graph is the result
of an analysis of a large number of natural unit hydrographs
from drainage areas ranging widely in size and geographic
locations. The method requires only the determination of the
time to peak and the peak discharge. The peak discharge can be
expressed as follows (Viessman et al., 1989).
(12)
where qp = peak discharge (ft3/s); A = drainage area (mi2)
and tp = the time to peak (hour). Time to peak is the time it
takes a stream of water to build up to it peak. It is important in
flood prediction and basin management and controlled by basin
length, length of mainstream, slope and others.
The time to peak is given by:
(13)
where: tp = the time to peak (hour);D = the duration of rainfall
(hour); tL = the lag time (hour) The lag time can be described by
the equation below:
(14)
where: tc = the time of concentration (hours). The time of
concentration can be defined as the time required, with uniform
rainfall, for 100% of a tract of land to contribute to the direct
runoff at the outlet (Viessman et al., 1989; Viessman and Lewis,
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2008; Wurbs and James, 2010). The time of concentration can
be expressed by the equation below:
(15)
where: tc = Time of concentration (min); L = Length of main
river (m); S = the watershed gradient or slope (m/m).The
watershed slope can be described by the expression below:
(16)
The duration of rainfall can also be expressed as:
(17)
where: D = the duration of rainfall (hour); tc = time of
concentration (hour).
3.3.3. Gray’s Method
The Gray’s method is a synthetic unit hydrograph method that is
based on dimensionalizing the incomplete gamma distribution in
its generation of unit hydrograph. The method requires the
determination of some important characteristics of the watershed
such as main stream length, channel slope, area, period of rise
and others. These parameters allows for the computation of
discharge ordinates for the unit hydrograph at times equal to ¼
intervals of the period of rise. The incomplete gamma
distribution is:
(18)
Where Qt/PR =percent flow in 0.25PR at any given t/PR value, q
and ᵞ = shape and scale parameters, respectively. Г(q) = the
gamma function of q which is equal to (q-1)!, e = the base of the
natural logarithm, PR = the period of rise (min), t = time (min).
The relationship for ᵞ’ is defined as:
(19)
and
(20)
Correlations with physiographic characteristics of the watershed
can be developed to get the values of both P R and ᵞ . The storage
factor PR/ ᵞ’ has been linked with watershed parameter L/Sc,
where L is the length of main channel of the watershed in miles.
The average channel slope, Sc is achieved by plotting the
elevation points along the main river channel on the map against
the distance from head of stream.
4.0. APPLICATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
A unit hydrograph of the desired duration can be obtained from
a unit hydrograph of a known duration either by the S-curve
method or by the principle of superposition. It is also used to
obtain the flood hydrograph corresponding to a single storm or
multiple storms from the unit hydrograph so derived. For design
purpose, a design storm is assumed, which with the help of unit
hydrograph, gives a design flood hydrograph. Furthermore, unit
hydrograph is used for the estimation of design storm for the
watershed. Such estimates of design storms are useful for
routing the flood which in-turns used to determine the dimension
of spillway and the length of the stilling basin during the
IJESC, June 2020 26216
construction of any proposed dam on any river. Moreover, the
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) uses
hydrographs in water evaluation to determine the effects of
proposed structures, land treatment or land use, changes on peak
discharges and volume of runoff; flood plain delineation to
outline the area flooded by rainfall of a certain magnitude;
determination of structure classification of earth dam; and
emergency spillway design.
5.0. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of
direct runoff (overflow) resulting from one unit of effective
rainfall which is uniformly distributed over the basin and which
occurs at a uniform rate during a specified period of time. The
unit hydrograph is limited by some conditions and its shape is
affected by some factors including; drainage characteristics and
rainfall characteristics. The methods of estimation of unit
hydrograph employed in this work have been found so useful in
one way or the other. Series of procedures and mathematical
formulas for determining and estimating basin characteristics are
then employed in this capacity. Unit hydrograph has various
applications including; prediction of flood peak discharges and
the determination of the direct runoff response to rainfall;
estimation of design flood which is applied in the construction
of dam, flood plain delineation and water evaluation; derivation
of unit hydrograph desired duration from a unit hydrograph of a
known duration.
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Resources Engineering, Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi,
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[3]. Bohman, L.R., 1990, Determination of flood hydrographs
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