06-11-2023

Introduction to Hydraulic and Water

Resources Engineering
(HWRE)
as a part of
Introduction to Civil Engineering

Dr. Rajib Maity

Section-In-Charge: HWRE
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur – 721302, India

Specializations of our Department

Total Five Specializations:

 Environmental Engineering & Management

 Geotechnical Engineering

 Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

 Structural Engineering

 Transportation Engineering

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Brief Details of HWRE

Faculty Members:

 Prof. Dhrubajyoti Sen

 Prof. V R Desai (on Lien)
 Prof. Rajib Maity
 Prof. Anirban Dhar
 Dr. H P Reddy
 Dr. M Saud Afzal
 Dr. Manish Pandey

Research Areas

Prof. Rajib Maity

 Climate Change Impacts Assessment: Effect of climate change on hydrology and water resources,
Hydrological Systems in a Changing Environment, Bias correction and downscaling.
 Analysis of Hydroclimatic Extremes: Spatio-temporal change in rainfall extremes, Analysis and
hydroclimatic modeling of droughts, Probable Maximum Precipitation.
 Sea Level Rise: Hydroclimatic modelling of local Sea Level Rise, Coastal vulnerability and future
impacts.
 Statistical Methods: Time series analysis and forecasting, Copula theory in hydroclimatic analysis,
Graphical Modelling, Probabilistic prediction and uncertainty quantification.
 Remote Sensing Applications in Hydrology: Application of remote sensing for soil moisture
assessment.
 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Application of Support Vector Machines (SVM),
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Evolutionary Optimizer, Deep Learning
(DL) etc. in hydroclimatology.

Visit my homepage for more details: http://www.facweb.iitkgp.ac.in/~rajibmaity/

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Global Freshwater Availability

Source: UNESCO
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Water Resources Engineering

What is Water Resources Engineering?

Engineering aspect of water when it is considered as a
resource. Different aspect includes water availability, water
storage, water distribution, water quality and other
environmental aspects

As water resources engineers, we are interested in

engineering aspect of Water Resources

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Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle
• This is in the central focus
• The hydrologic cycle is a global, sun-driven, continuous, end-less
process whereby water is transported from the oceans to
atmosphere to the land and back to the ocean.
Different components
Precipitation
Infiltration
Deep percolation
Runoff
Streamflow
Subsurface flow
Ground water flow
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration

Hydrologic cycle with global annual

water balance
Relative to a value 100 for the rate of precipitation on land

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Different Processes
 Precipitation
 All forms of water (rain, snow, drizzle, glaze, sleet, hail),
which are received by the earth’s surface after condensation of
atmospheric water. It is a more general term than rainfall.
Approximately 577,000 km3/yr of water fall as precipitation
each year, out of which 458,000 km3/yr of it over the oceans.

 Interception
 The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and
eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than
falling to the ground.

Different Processes
 Runoff
 That part of precipitation that flows toward the streams on the
surface of the ground or within the ground.
 Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of
water that occurs when excess stormwater, snowmelt water, or
other sources flows over the earth's surface.
 Subsurface runoff is the water that infiltrates in the vadose zone
(unsaturated zone), from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, and
moves laterally towards the streams.
 The depth to which a watershed (drainage area) would be
covered if all of the runoff for a given period of time were
uniformly distributed over it.
 Snowmelt Runoff
 The runoff produced by melting of snow.
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Different Processes…contd.
 Infiltration
 The process by which water penetrates and flows through ground
surface, generally in a perpendicular direction to the ground surface.
 Subsurface Flow
 The flow of water below ground surface, generally in a direction parallel
to the ground surface. This could be either in unsaturated zone (known
as vadose zone) or below ground water table (GWT) (saturated zone).
Subsurface water may return to the surface or eventually seep into the
oceans or other water bodies.

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Different Processes…contd.
 Evaporation
 The process of transformation of water from liquid to gas phases and while
moving from water bodies to atmosphere mainly utilizing the solar energy.
 Transpiration
 The release of water vapor from plants into the air.
 Evapotranspiration
 Combination of evaporation (from free water surface, land surface and others) and
transpiration from plants together is termed as evapotranspiration. Total global
annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 577,000 km3/yr of water, out
of which 505,000 km3/yr of which evaporates from the oceans.
 Sublimation
 The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
 Condensation
 The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, producing
clouds and fog. 12

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Precipitation

Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

Non-recording Type
The non-recording rain gauge used in
India is the Symon’s Raingauge
It consist of a funnel with a circular rim
of 12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle
as a receiver.
Rainfall is measured every day at 8:30
am
Frequency should increase during
heavy rain. However, the last reading
must be at 8:30 am.
Total depth is recorded. Intensity,
duration of rainfall cannot be measured.

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

Recording Type
Three types of recording rain gauges
are available
1) Tipping bucket type
2) Weighing bucket type
3) Natural syphon type

Tipping bucket type rain gauges have a

least count of 0.25 mm
These are suitable for telemetering

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

Weighing bucket type rain gauge

Natural syphon type rain gauge

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

A typical Rain Gauge Recorder

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

A typical Rain Gauge Recorder Chart

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

Interpretation:

The average rainfall intensity between 7 a.m. and 12 noon

0.85 mm
  0.17 mm / hr
5 hr
Total rainfall in Day 1 = 1.2 mm
and total rainfall in Day 2 = 1.6 – 1.2 = 0.4 mm

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Measurement of Rainfall by Rain Gauges

Radar Measurement
Electromagnetic radiation
CZ
Pr  2
r
where Pr - Average ecopower
Z – Radar ecofactor
r – Distance to target volume
C – Constant
Z is related to the intensity of rainfall as follows:
Z  aI b
where I - Intensity of rainfall, Z – as stated before. Typical
values of a and b are 150 – 200 and 1.5 – 2.0

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Optimum Number of Rain Gauge Stations

Optimum number of rain gauge stations (N) for a desired degree of

percentage error (p) in the estimate of mean rainfall –
2
C 
N  V 
  
S
where CV - Coefficient of Variation in percentage  100  X
 m 2
X
  X i  X  
SX – Standard Deviation   i 1 
 m 1 
 
m

X i

X – Mean of the data  i 1m

m – number of existing raingauge stations

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Optimum Number of Rain Gauge Stations

A catchment has 7 raingauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall
recorded by gauges are as follows. For a 10 % error in the estimation of
mean rainfall, calculate the number of optimum number of stations.
Stations Rainfall (cm) Obs - Mean (Obs - Mean)2  8723.1
SX    38.13 cm
1 79.5 -52.4 2741.3  7  1 
2 90.2 -41.7 1735.3 SX
3 189.3 57.4 3299.7 CV  100 
X
4 125.4 -6.5 41.7
38.13
5 146.2 14.3 205.7  100 
6 134.2 2.3 5.5 131.9
7 158.2 26.3 693.9  28.92 %
2
Total = 923.0 8723.1  28.92 
Mean = 131.9
N    8.36  9
 10 
Thus, two more stations are required

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Presentation of Rainfall Data

Point Rainfall or Station Rainfall
1) Mass curve of rainfall: The mass curve of rainfall is a plot between
accumulated rainfall (in depth unit) and time
Accumulated Rainfall (cm)

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10
0

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hr)

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Presentation of Rainfall Data

2) Rainfall Hyetograph: The hyetograph is a plot between rainfall
intensity and time. The hyetograph is represented by a bar chart.
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Rainfall Intensity (cm/h)
2
1
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (hr)

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Presentation of Rainfall Data

3) Time Series: The rainfall magnitude arranged chronologically over
time is known as rainfall time series.
100
Rainfall Depth (cm)
75
50
25
0

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M
Time (hr)

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Mean Precipitation over an Area

1) Arithmetic Mean Method
n

P i
P i 1
n
2) Thiessen Polygon Method
n

PA i i
P i 1
n

A
i 1
i

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Mean Precipitation over an Area

3) Isohyetal Method

A1
A2
A3
n 1
 Pi  Pi 1 
8  A  i
2 

P i 1
A

An
10
8 6
4
2

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Return Period:
Return period is the recurrence interval of a hydrological event (here,
precipitation) of a given magnitude.
The average interval of time within which the magnitude of hydrologic
event will be equalled or exceeded once. It is expressed as –
1
T
p
where p is the probability of occurrence of an event whose magnitude
is equal to or in excess of a specified magnitude X.
Thus, for example, if it is stated that the return period of ‘25 mm
rainfall in 24 h’ at a location is 10 years, the probability of an event of
‘25 mm rainfall in 24 h’ in any one year at that station is 1/10 = 0.1

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Binomial Distribution:
If the probability of an event occurring is p, the probability of the event
not occurring in a given year is q = 1 – p
The Binomial distribution can be used to find the probability of
occurrence of the event r times in n successive years. Thus, –
n!
pr ,n  nCr p r 1  p  p r 1  p 
nr nr

n!n  r !
where pr,n is the probability of a random hydrologic event (rainfall) of
given magnitude and exceedence probability p occurring r time in n
successive years.

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Special Cases
a) Probability of an event not occurring at all in n successive years –

p0,n  1  p 
n

b) Probability of an event occurring at least once in n successive

years, also known as risk, –

r  1  1  p 
n

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Problem
If expected design life of a structure is 50 years and the allowable risk
is 5 %, what should be return period of the extreme event?

Soln.
Here r = 0.05; n = 50 years
Thus,
0.05  1  1  p   p  0.0010253
50

And return period,

1
T  975.29  976 yr
0.0010253

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Probability Plotting
As a check that a probability distribution fits a set of hydrologic data,
the data may be plotted on specifically designed probability paper, or
using a plotting scale that linearizes the distribution function

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Precipitation Frequency Analysis

Probability Plotting
Plotting Positions Formulae
____________________________
Method p= .
Weibull m/(N+1)
California m/N
Hazen (m-0.5)/N
Chegodayev (m-0.3)/(N+0.4)
Bolm (m-0.44)/(N+0.12)
Chegodayev (m-0.375)/(N+0.25)
____________________________
where m is the rank of a value in a list ordered by descending
magnitude and N is the total number of data

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Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
Average Intensity (mm/h)
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Return periods (year)

100
50
10

25
0

0 1 2 3 4 5
Duration (hr)

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Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
The interdependency between the intensity (i cm/h), duration (D h)
and return period (T years) is commonly expressed in a general form
as –
KT x
i
D  a n
Place k n b m
Bellary 6.16 0.694 0.50 0.972
Bhopal 6.93 0.189 0.50 0.878
Chandigarh 5.82 0.160 0.40 0.750
Nagpur 11.45 0.156 1.25 1.032
Raipur 4.68 0.139 0.15 0.928

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Depth-Area-Duration (DAD)
Relationship
Depth-Area relation:
For a rainfall of a given duration, the average depth decreases with
the area in an exponential fashion given by


P  P0 exp  KAn 
where P is the average depth in cm over an area A km2, P0 is the
highest amount of rainfall in cm at the storm centre and K and n are
constant for a given region. Some typical values for K and n are as
follows–
Duration k n
1 day 0.0008526 0.6614
2 days 0.0009877 0.6306
3 days 0.001745 0.5961

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Depth-Area-Duration (DAD)
Relationship
Typical DAD Curves

Max Average Depth (cm)

20
12 hr
6 hr
10

1 hr
0

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Area (km2)

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Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is the greatest or extreme
rainfall for a given duration that is physically possible over a station or
basin.
It is also defined as that rainfall over a basin which would produce a
flood with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
It can be determined statistically as –
PMP  P  K

where P is the mean of annual maximum rainfall series,  is the

standard deviation of the series and K is a frequency factor whch
depends on the statistical distribution of the series, number of data
record and the return period.

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Streamflow

Streamflow measurement

 Streamflow is the only component of the

hydrological cycle which may be measured with
higher accuracy as compared to other variables
 Streamflow measurement techniques can be
broadly classified into the following categories:
 Direct determination
 Area velocity method
 Dilution techniques
 Electromagnetic method
 Ultrasonic method
 Indirect determination
 Hydraulic structures (weirs/ gated structures)
 Slope area method

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Measurement of velocity
 For direct determination of streamflow, velocity measurement
is an important aspect. Current meters are used for
measurement of velocity. Current meters are of two types:

Vertical axis current meter

Horizontal axis current meter Source:trade.indiamart.com
Source:www.ilmb.gov.bc.ca

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Average velocity

 In shallow streams upto 3m,

v  v0.6
 In moderately deep streams,
v0.2  v0.8
v
2
 In rivers having flood flows,

v  Kvs
where vs: surface velocity
K: reduction factor (between 0.85 to 0.95) obtained
from observations at lower stages

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Stage-discharge relationship

 In a given stream, a series of careful experiments are

carried out to obtain a relationship between the
discharge and the elevation of the water surface
(stage). This relationship is known as the stage-
discharge relationship.

 Then the stage is measured routinely and

inexpensively and the corresponding discharge is
obtained from the stage-discharge equation. The
equation must be updated from time to time due to
change in the flow characteristics of the river.

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Measurement of stage
 Manual gauges  Automatic Stage
 Staff gauge recorders
 Wire gauge  Float gauge recorder
 Bubble gauge recorder

Source: ga.water.usgs.gov
Source: ga.water.usgs.gov
Staff gauge Float gauge recorder

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References:

Subramanya, K (2008), Engineering Hydrology, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

Chow, V T., D. R. Maidment and L. W. Mays (1988), “Applied Hydrology”,

McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.

Mays, L. W. (2004), Water Resources Engineering, John Wiley & Sons (Asia),
Singapore.

Viessman, W. Jr. and G. L. Lewis (2003), Introduction to Hydrology, 5th Edition,

Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey.

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All the Best

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