Hydrology Hdrology: Hydrology Created By: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo

Hydrology
HDROLOGY
MODULE 1
Created by: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Hydrology

School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrology
Phase 1
Hydrology and the Hydrologic
Cycle
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Determine the difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics
 Analyze and interpret the Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle
This chapter focuses on:

Content • Difference Between Hydrology and Hydraulics
• The Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact
• Interrelationships of Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle:
o Evapotranspiration
o Precipitation
o Infiltration/Percolation
o Surface/Subsurface Runoff
o Groundwater
 Aquatic Environment by V.J. Inglezakis, A.N. Menegaki, in

Related Environment and Development, 2016
 Floral Species in Pollution Remediation and Augmentation of
Readings Micrometeorological Conditions and Microclimate by Poulomi
Chakravarty, Manoj Kumar, in Phytomanagement of Polluted
Sites, 2019
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology

References with Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA:
Delmar, Cengage Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2
8RU, UK: Cambridge University Press, New York
Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 1 of 10

Phase 1
Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle
“We forget that the water cycle and the life cycle are one.”
-Jacques Yves Cousteau
Hydrology means the science of water. It is an extremely important field of study, dealing with one of
the most valuable resources on Earth: water. All aspects of the Earth’s available water are studied by experts
from many disciplines, from geologists to engineers, to obtain the information needed to manage this vital
resource. Hydrologists rely on their understanding of how water interacts with its environment, including
how it moves from the Earth’s surface, to the atmosphere, and then back to Earth. This never-ending
movement is called the hydrologic cycle, or the water cycle.
Difference Between Hydrology and Hydraulics
Hydrology is the scientific study of the waters of the earth, with a particular focus on how rainfall and
evaporation affect the flow of water in streams and storm drains. Hydraulics is the engineering analysis of
the flow of water in channels, pipelines, and other hydraulic structures.
How do civil engineers use hydrology in land development?
In land development, hydrology typically refers to the rate of precipitation, quantity of water,
rate of surface runoff, and timing of its arrival at a point of interest (the project site).
Any development activity will change the flow of water on a site. If you clear cut a parcel of
land, rainfall is more likely to run off the site rather than be absorbed by grass and trees. If left
unmanaged, this newly created runoff can negatively affect neighboring parcels. To combat this
domino effect, local development authorities (city, county, state, etc.) require site designs to meet
certain water-related criteria – namely that the site design will not negatively affect nearby sites
through increased runoff.
Engineers use hydrology to provide reports detailing the surface water flow changes that are
anticipated with the proposed site design. The goal is typically to determine if the post-development
storm water flow is equal to or greater than the pre-development storm water flow. Engineers use
data related to precipitation, drainage basin sizes and land covers, soil type(s), appropriate runoff
coefficient(s), conveyance elevation and geometry, etc. to determine this information. A drainage
report is typically required in support of the storm water management plan for a proposed project.
Once this data is compiled, the engineer moves on to the hydraulic design of any storm water
systems needed to manage the difference in water flow that the proposed development would cause.

Phase 1
How do civil engineers use hydraulics in land development?
In land development, hydraulic analysis is used after the hydrology reporting process in order
to design storm water conveyance networks, calculate the depth of flow in pipes, and determine open
channel flow in ditches and swales. This is often referred to as “storm water management design.”
Once the difference between pre-development storm water flow and post-development storm
water flow is determined, civil engineers use hydraulics to design storm water management systems
to account for the difference to minimize a development’s effect on neighboring sites. These systems,
both pipes and open channels, are designed to accommodate all intercepted water flow from rainfall
events. A typical project includes the design of many hydraulic components, such as pipe sizes, pipe
alignments, flow line elevations, end treatments, inlet and outlet protection, channel geometry, and
channel slope, to name a few.
Hydrology helps assess all possible conditions of a proposed development during multiple environmental
scenarios. Hydraulics is then used to design appropriate systems to mitigate any changes from the site’s pre-
development state.
The Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact
Human activities can influence the hydrologic cycle in many other ways. The volumes and timing of
river flows can be greatly affected by channeling to decrease the impediments to flow, and by changing the
character of the watershed by paving, compacting soils, and altering the nature of the vegetation. Risks of
flooding can be increased by speeding the rate at which water is shed from the land, thereby increasing the
magnitude of peak flows. Risks of flooding are also increased if erosion of soils from terrestrial parts of the
watershed leads to siltation and the development of shallower river channels, which then fill up and spill over
during high-flow periods. Massive increases in erosion are often associated with deforestation, especially
when natural forests are converted into agriculture.
Hydroelectricity
This involves changing the stored gravitational energy of water held behind the dam into
electrical energy that can be used. While this is a non-polluting renewable way to generate electricity,
it does have environmental impacts – especially when mismanaged.
Rivers must be dammed, which can affect the function of the river both upstream and
downstream – lakes are usually formed from the water accumulating above the dam and a build-up
of silt can occur, while the amount of water is reduced further downstream. This can be problematic
for any plants and animals that may find themselves with too much or too little water, and migrating
fish cannot get through the dams.

Phase 1
Seriously mismanaged dams can result in droughts downstream, with smaller streams
completely drying up, leaving areas of un-watered land. People then have to look at ways of getting
more water into these dry areas.
Clyde hydro dam

The Clyde dam in the South Island uses water to generate electricity. It is New Zealand’s third largest hydro dam.
Irrigation
As the human population has increased, so have our demands on the land. We need more
food, and to make food, we need water. Irrigation is the artificial watering of land that does not get
enough water through rainfall. Irrigation is used substantially by most countries, some more than
others. Arid (dry) lands require far more water, as do countries that have large intensive farming
communities.
The problem with irrigation is that it removes water from its natural source and often causes
leaching and run-off where it is used. This removal of nutrients results in farmers using more
fertilizers to keep their pastures productive while the waterways become polluted. Another problem
is that salt is brought up from lower levels (salination).

Phase 1
Spray irrigator
Irrigation is a method used to water farm land. Unfortunately, it removes water from rivers and can cause surface
run-off and leaching.
Deforestation
The removal of trees is having a major impact on the water cycle, as local and global climates
change.
Normally, trees release water vapor when they transpire, producing a localized humidity. This
water vapor then evaporates into the atmosphere where it accumulates before precipitating back to
the Earth as rain, sleet or snow. Deforestation in one area can therefore affect the weather in another
area because if trees are cut down, there is less water to be evaporated into the atmosphere and
subsequently less rain.
At a local level, the land becomes drier and less stable. When it rains, instead of the water
being soaked up, there is increased run-off and leaching. Areas can become more prone to both
droughts and flooding, impacting on plants and animals, and also humans living near deforested areas.

Phase 1
Dynamic and complex: the global water cycle

Water in the Earth system is influencing all aspects of life on Earth. Pathways, storage, transfers and transformations
have an effect on the global climate and human welfare.
Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon of Earth’s atmosphere trapping a range of

gases, which in turn capture infrared radiation to keep our Earth at a moderate temperature range
compared to the other planets in our solar system
Human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels has an effect on the overall increase of the
Earth’s temperature. Raising the Earth’s temperature may mean that there is an increase of
evaporation, melting of ice or other processes of the water cycle that adversely affect the climate on
Earth.

Phase 1
Interrelationships of Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation

from the land surface plus transpiration from plants.
The typical plant, including any found in a

landscape, absorbs water from the soil through its roots.
That water is then used for metabolic and physiologic
functions. The water eventually is released to the
atmosphere as vapor via the plant's stomata — tiny,
closeable, pore-like structures on the surfaces of leaves.
Overall, this uptake of water at the roots, transport of
water through plant tissues, and release of vapor by
leaves is known as transpiration.
Water also evaporates directly into the atmosphere from soil in the vicinity of the plant. Any
dew or droplets of water present on stems and leaves of the plant eventually evaporates as well.
Scientists refer to the combination of evaporation and transpiration as evapotranspiration, abbreviated
ET.

Phase 1
Precipitation
Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or
hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water
to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.
Infiltration and Percolation
Infiltration and percolation are two related but different processes describing the movement
of moisture through soil. Infiltration is defined as the downward entry of water into the soil or rock
surface (SSSA, 1975) and percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or fractured rock.
In hydrologic modeling, these two processes are usually modeled separately. Infiltration rate is the
rate at which a soil under specified conditions absorbs falling rain, melting snow, or surface water
expressed in depth of water per unit time (ASCE, 1985). Percolation rate, although more difficult to
measure directly, represents the rate at which soil moisture moves down through the soil or permeable
rock.
Surface and Sub-Surface Run-off
Surface runoff is water from rain, snow melting, or other sources that flows over the land
surface, and is a major component of the water cycle. There are two types of surface runoff that occur
during rainfall or snowmelt.
Interflow, also known as subsurface runoff is relatively rapid flow toward the stream channel
that occurs below the surface. It occurs more rapidly than base flow, but typically more slowly than
surface runoff.

Phase 1
Groundwater
Ground water is water that fills pores and fractures in the ground, much as milk fills the voids
within bits of granola in a breakfast bowl. The top of ground water is called the water table. Between
the water table and the land surface is the unsaturated zone or vadose zone. In the unsaturated zone,
moisture is moving downward to the water table to recharge the ground water. The water table can
be very close to the surface (within a few feet), or very deep (up to several hundred feet).

Phase 1
References:
https://acfloodcontrol.org/projects-and-programs/hydrology-
hydraulics/#:~:text=Hydrology%20is%20the%20scientific%20study,pipelines%2C%20and%20other%20h
ydraulic%20structures.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
http://www.foresitegroup.net/whats-the-difference-between-hydrology-and-hydraulics/
Hydrologic Cycle - Influences Of Human Activities On The Hydrologic Cycle - Water, Watershed, Flows,
and Agriculture - JRank Articles https://science.jrank.org/pages/3470/Hydrologic-Cycle-Influences-
human-activities-on-hydrologic-cycle.html#ixzz6SgCOw62e
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/726-humans-and-the-water-cycle
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-cycle?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
https://forestrypedia.com/infiltration-and-percolation/
https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1731-25045-9495/dl_perc.pdf
https://prezi.com/dsg1dd1ebl5b/surface-and-subsurface-runoff-
phenomenon/#:~:text=Surface%20runoff%20is%20water%20from,component%20of%20the%20water%20
cycle.&text=Interflow%2C%20also%20known%20as%20subsurface,that%20occurs%20below%20the%20
surface.
http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu/files/156562.pdf

Hydrology
Phase 2
Weather Basics (Meteorology):
Atmospheric Waters
Objective  Discuss the concept of the Atmosphere and Cloud Physics.
 Define Solar Radiation and its effect on Earth’s Energy Balance

Content • The Atmosphere: Composition, General Characteristics and
Stability.
• Introduction of Cloud Physics: Nucleation, Growth and
Distribution.
• Solar radiation and Earth’s Energy Balance.
• General Circulation: Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation
• Temperature: Geographic Distribution
• Time Variation and Measurement,
• Humidity: Geographic Distribution, Time Variation and
Measurement
Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
Readings
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology
References with Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA:
Delmar, Cengage Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2
8RU, UK: Cambridge University Press, New York
Hydrology
Phase 2
Weather Basics (Meteorology): Atmospheric Waters
Meteorology
Meteorology is the science that deals with the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena especially
with weather. It is a sub-discipline of the atmospheric sciences, a term that covers all studies of the
atmosphere.
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place over a short period of time in terms
of wind, sunshine, precipitation, temperature, visibility, clouds, pressure, and humidity. While climate refers
to the weather pattern of a place over a long period of time (20 to 1,000,000 years). It is determined by
rainfall and temperature, which are influenced by latitude, elevation, and ocean currents which affects where
and how people live, and what they grow and eat.
The Atmosphere
Surrounding the Earth is a gaseous envelope or atmosphere, held in place by the planet’s gravitational
attraction. The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex dynamical, physical, and chemical system. Dynamic
processes cover a large range of scales from the microscopic-scale dynamics of evaporation, condensation,
cloud formation and precipitation, to small-scale, localized vertical and horizontal wind motions, to medium-
scale cyclones, anticyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, thunderstorms, fronts, etc., to the largescale
general circulation of the atmosphere.
Physical processes in the atmosphere include the transfer of incoming solar radiation through the
atmosphere to the surface, the heating of the surface, the emission of outgoing infrared radiation, the
absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases, the evaporation of water, the condensation of
atmospheric water vapor into clouds, and precipitation. Chemical processes include the transformation and
production of atmospheric gases, such as atmospheric ozone, via chemical reactions involving many dozens
of gases in the atmosphere.
While the Earth’s atmosphere extends upward for hundreds of kilometers until it merges with
interplanetary space, more than half of the atmosphere’s total mass is below an altitude of only about 6
kilometers (3.75 miles) above the surface. The
lowest region of the atmosphere, the troposphere,
extends from the surface to an altitude that varies
from 10 to 15 kilometers (km) (6.2 to 9.3 miles
(mi.)), depending on latitude and season. The top
of the troposphere is called the tropopause. The
regions of the atmosphere above the troposphere
are the stratosphere (from between 10 and 15 to
40 km (between 6.2-9.3 and 25 mi.)), the
mesosphere (40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi.)), the
thermosphere (80 to 500 km (50 to 310 mi.)) and
the exosphere (begins at about 500 km (310 mi.)).
The exosphere merges with interplanetary space.
The ionosphere is the region of atmosphere
between 40 and 300 km (25 and 185 mi.). It is the
region of positively-charged atoms and molecules
and negatively-charged electrons.

Phase 2
Composition
The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex mixture of gases: nitrogen (N2) (about 78% by volume),
oxygen (O2) (about 21% by volume) and argon (Ar) (about 0.9% by volume) with small and varying
amounts of water vapor (H2O) (0 to 4% by volume) and still smaller amounts of carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3) and dozens of other gases at still smaller
concentrations. The chemical composition of the atmosphere is given below.
The protection afforded by the atmosphere is very important for life on Earth. The atmosphere
shields the Earth’s surface and its myriad forms of life from biologically damaging high-energy
cosmic radiation. In addition, ozone, found mostly in the stratosphere, absorbs ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun, shielding the Earth’s surface from this biologically damaging radiation.
General Characteristics
Atmospheric pressure is a measure of the force exerted by the mass of atmosphere on the
surface at a given location. The average pressure of the atmosphere at mean sea level is about 1 kg
per square cm, which is equivalent to about 14.7 pounds per square inch or a pressure of 1013.25
millibars (mb), and which is also referred to as 1 atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is measured with
a barometer.

Phase 2
Humidity is a general term that refers to the water vapor content of the air. Absolute
humidity is the actual amount of water vapor per volume of air. Relative humidity is the percentage
of water vapor in the atmosphere compared with the maximum amount of water vapor that the
atmosphere could contain at that temperature. The dew point of a given parcel of air is the temperature
to which the parcel must be cooled, at constant pressure, for the water vapor component to condense.
Humidity is measured with a psychrometer.
Wind speed is measured with a 4-cup anemometer and wind direction is measured with a
weather vane. Winds are named after the direction from which they flow. For example, the northeast
trade winds flow in a southward direction from the northeast. The amount of cloud cover is estimated
either visually or photo graphically. The amount of precipitation is measured with a rain gauge.
Stability
We can think of air stability as the tendency for air to rise or fall through the atmosphere under
its own "power". Stable air has a tendency to resist movement. On the other hand, unstable air will
easily rise. What gives air "power" to rise? The tendency for air to rise or fall depends on the adiabatic
and environmental lapse rates.
How to determine atmospheric stability?
Imagine a ball in water:
– When does it rise? When it is lighter than environment, it will rise.
– When does it sink? When it is heavier than environment, it will sink.
Same is true with air parcels.
Temperature determines the density of an air parcel at a given pressure.

Phase 2
To determine an air parcel temperature or the rising of air parcels and its adiabatic cooling,
consider a rising parcel of air as shown:
As the parcel rises, it will adiabatically expand and cool.
* adiabatic - a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an

expansion or compression, no heat is added or taken away from the parcel.
Lapse rate (0C/km) - rate of temperature change with height.
Dry-adiabatic lapse rate - unsaturated parcels cool at a rate of 10°C/km. This is

called the dry-adiabatic lapse rate.
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate - For a saturated parcel of air, it cools at the moist
adiabatic lapse rate = 6°C/km.

Phase 2
Introduction of Cloud Physics
Cloud physics is the microscale study of processes that govern all cloud and precipitation processes.
A cloud is aggregate of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air. Some are found only
at high elevations whereas others nearly touch the ground. They can be thick or thin, big or little and exist in
a seemingly endless variety of forms.
Nucleation
Nucleation is the initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from a solution, a
liquid, or a vapor, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern
characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as
the crystal grows.
Homogeneous nucleation (condensation of pure water with no dust or aerosols present)

requires a relative humidity of 400 – 500%. Though this can be achieved in a laboratory, such high
relative humidity does not occur in the atmosphere. Therefore, homogeneous nucleation cannot
explain the initial formation of cloud droplets.
Heterogeneous nucleation occurs much more often than homogeneous nucleation.

Heterogeneous nucleation applies to the phase transformation between any two phases of gas, liquid,
or solid, typically for example, condensation of gas/vapor, solidification from liquid, bubble
formation from liquid, etc.
Growth and Distribution
The continued growth of a cloud droplet, once condensation has started, is initially governed
by the diffusion of the water vapor molecules toward the droplet. Diffusion is the process of
molecules moving from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower concentrations. At the
surface of a droplet, water vapor is simultaneously condensing and evaporating. When the
concentration of water vapor molecules is higher some distance from the droplet than it is at the
droplet surface, the water vapor in the air diffuses toward the droplet, condenses onto the droplet, and
the net effect is droplet growth. The rate of growth of the droplet depends on two things:
1. The gradient in vapor

concentration from the surface of
the droplet to the ambient
environment the presence of
super saturation, i. e., a relative
humidity H greater than the
equilibrium relative humidity H
of the droplet. Diffusional growth
gives narrow size distribution.
2. The surface area 4πr2

Phase 2
Solar Radiation and Earth’s Energy Balance
To a large extent, the temperature of the Earth’s surface is determined by the amount of radiation
received from the Sun. Most of the incoming radiation from the Sun is in the form of visible radiation.
The atmosphere is mostly transparent to incoming solar radiation, i.e., this radiation is not absorbed
by gases in the atmosphere, with the notable exception of solar ultraviolet radiation, which is absorbed by
ozone mostly located in the stratosphere. However, some of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back to
space by clouds, by ice and snow at the poles, and by desert areas as shown. The surface of the Earth is
heated by the absorption of incoming solar radiation and reaches a mean global temperature of about –18 °C
(0 °F). Once heated to the mean temperature, the Earth emits radiation in the form of “long-wavelength,” or
infrared, radiation back to space. Unlike incoming solar radiation, which is not strongly absorbed by
atmospheric gases and passes through the atmosphere to the surface, outgoing infrared radiation is strongly
absorbed by several different atmospheric gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous
oxide and ozone.
Immediately after being absorbed by these atmospheric gases, the infrared radiation is quickly
reemitted or released back to the atmosphere in both the upward and downward directions. The downward
component of the re-emitted infrared radiation strikes the surface and causes additional heating, increasing
the mean temperature of the Earth to about 15 °C (59 °F). This additional heating is called the “greenhouse
effect” and the gases that absorb and then reemit infrared gases are called “greenhouse gases.” Measurements
show that atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide —
are increasing with time most probably due to human activities. Atmospheric concentrations of water vapor
will increase as the temperature of the atmosphere increases. The buildup of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere has led to national and international concern about global warming and its accompanying
environmental consequences.

Phase 2
General Circulation
Due to the curvature of the Earth (the Earth’s spherecity), the Sun’s rays are spread over a larger and
larger area the further the latitude from the equator. Therefore, the sunlight is less concentrated than at
latitudes nearer the equator and less solar heating takes place. This is why the Earth’s equatorial regions are
hot and the polar regions are cold. The atmosphere and ocean redistribute the excess solar energy from the
equatorial regions to the polar regions via their circulation. Hence, the solar-heated air at the equator rises
and then moves poleward at high altitudes in both hemispheres. This causes a surface low-pressure area at
the equator. The low pressure area between 5° N and 5° S is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITC).
At about 30° N and 30° S of the equator, some of the high-altitude poleward-moving heated air begins to
cool, which causes it to descend to the surface, creating high pressure areas at the surface.
The descending air sets up surface wind patterns that flow away from these high-pressure systems towards
the poles and the equator in both hemispheres. As air flows from regions of high pressure to regions of low
pressure, it is deflected to the right (in the northern hemisphere) and to the left (in the southern hemisphere)
by the Earth’s rotation. This is known as the Coriolis Effect. Thus, in the northern hemisphere, the surface
air flowing equatorward is turned toward the southwest. These winds are called the northeast trade winds
because they blow from the northeast (toward the southwest). In the southern hemisphere, the surface air
flowing equatorward is turned toward the northwest. These winds are called the southeast trade winds
because they blow from the southeast (toward the northeast). In both the northern and southern hemispheres,
the poleward surface flow gets directed by the Coriolis effect, resulting in westerly or prevailing westerly

Phase 2
winds. The general flow of the atmosphere begins to get more complicated poleward of 30° in both
hemispheres due to the presence of fronts and the high-altitude jet stream. In the northern hemisphere, the
flow of the prevailing westerlies is further disturbed by the presence of land masses. Weather, particularly
poleward of 30°, is also impacted by dissimilar and interacting large air masses forming fronts and surface
cyclones and anticyclones.
Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation
The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the earth and the
incoming energy from the sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which help
transport energy and heat from the equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy from the
sun at the surface as warm air rises and colder air sinks.
The circulation cell closest to the equator is called the Hadley cell. Winds are light at the
equator because of the weak horizontal pressure gradients located there. The warm surface
conditions result in locally low pressure. The warm air rises at the equator producing clouds and
causing instability in the atmosphere. This instability causes thunderstorms to develop and release
large amounts of latent heat. Latent heat is just energy released by the storms due to changes from
water vapor to liquid water droplets as the vapor condenses in the clouds, causing the surrounding air
to become more warm and moist, which essentially provides the energy to drive the Hadley cell.

Phase 2
The Hadley Cell encompasses latitudes from the equator to about 30°. At this latitude surface
high pressure causes the air near the ground to diverge. This forces air to come down from aloft to
"fill in" for the air that is diverging away from the surface high pressure. The air flowing northward
from the equator high up in the atmosphere is warm and moist compared to the air nearer the poles.
This causes a strong temperature gradient between the two different air masses and a jet stream
results. At the 30° latitudes, this jet is known as the subtropical jet stream which flows from west to
east in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Clear skies generally prevail throughout the
surface high pressure, which is where many of the deserts are located in the world.
Temperature: Geographic Distribution

Distribution of temperature varies both horizontally and vertically.
A) Horizontal Distribution of Temperature
Distribution of temperature across the latitudes over the surface of the earth is called its
horizontal distribution. On maps, the horizontal distribution of temperature is commonly shown
by isotherms. Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal temperature.

Phase 2
When we analyze an isotherm map, it can be seen that the horizontal distribution of
temperature is uneven.
The factors responsible for the uneven horizontal distribution of temperature are:
1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Land and Sea Contrast
4. Ocean Currents
5. Air Masses
6. Vegetation Cover
B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature
The temperature in the troposphere decreases with an increase in the altitude. This vertical
gradient of temperature is commonly referred to as the standard atmosphere or Normal Lapse
Rate. However, this normal lapse rate varies with height, season, latitude and other factors.
Inversion of Temperature:
 The phenomenon in which temperature increases with increasing altitude

temporarily and locally under certain conditions is known as inversion of
temperature.
 Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.
 Long winter night, clear sky, dry air and absence of winds leads to quick radiation
of heat from the earth’s surface, as well as from the lower layers of the atmosphere.
 This results in the cooling of the air near the earth’s surface. The upper layers which
lose their heat not so quickly are comparatively warm.
 Hence the normal condition, in which temperature decreases with increasing height,
is reversed. The cooler air is nearer the earth and the warmer air is aloft.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. It indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or
fog. Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the skin.
Measurement
Humidity measurements at the Earth’s surface are required for meteorological analysis and
forecasting, for climate studies, and for many special applications in hydrology, agriculture,
aeronautical services and environmental studies, in general. General requirements for the range,
resolution, and accuracy of humidity measurements are given in table.

Phase 2
Wlt-bulb Relative
Requirement Dew-point Temperature
Temperature Humidity
At least 50 K in the
Range -10 to 35 °C 5-100%
Range -60 to 35 °C
±0.1 K high
Target RH ±1% high RH ±0.1 K high RH
accuracy(1) ±0.2 k mid ±5% mid RH ±0.5 K mid RH
RH
Achievable
observing ±0.2 K ±3-5%(3) ±0.5 K(3)
accuracy(2)
Reporting
code ±.1 K ±1% ±0.1 K
resolution
Sensor time
20 s 40 s 20 s
constant(4)
Output
averaging 60 s 60 s 60 s
time(5)
1. Hygrometers - Instrument for measuring humidity is known as a hygrometer. The employing physical
principles are:
a. Gravimetric hygrometry,
b. Condensation methods
i. Chilled-mirror method (dew-or frost-point hygrometer)
ii. Heated salt-solution method (vapour equilibrium hygrometer, known as the dew cell)
c. The psychrometric method
d. Sorption methods
e. Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by water vapour (ultraviolet and infrared absorption
hygrometers)
2. Psychrometer
3. Hair hygrometer
4. The chilled-mirror dew-point hygrometer
5. The lithium chloride heated condensation hygrometer (dew cell)
6. Electrical resistive and capacitive hgrometers

Phase 2
References:
surface.
https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf
https://lcp.org.ph/UserFiles/League_of_Cities/file/WPF-Weather101-updated.pdf
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/meteorology/
https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/atmospheric_moisture/lapse_rates_2.html#:~:text=We%
20can%20think%20of%20air,unstable%20air%20will%20easily%20rise.&text=The%20tendency%20for%
20air%20to%20rise%20or%20fall%20depends,adiabatic%20and%20environmental%20lapse%20rates.
https://www.weather.gov/media/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/clouds/stability_clouds/stability_clouds.pdf
https://www.britannica.com/science/nucleation
https://my.eng.utah.edu/~lzang/images/lecture-12.pdf
https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/AtmosCirculation
https://www.clearias.com/distribution-of-temperature-earths-
atmosphere/#:~:text=Distribution%20of%20Temperature-
,A)%20Horizontal%20Distribution%20of%20Temperature,that%20have%20an%20equal%20temperature.
https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-87_TM-AWOS/IOM-
87_Module_B2_2.pps

Hydrology
Phase 3
Important Phases of Hydrologic
Cycle
Objective  Discuss the formation of Precipitation: Occurrence and Measurement
in Philippine Setting
 Identify the instruments used in measuring Precipitation
 Analyze the Precipitation Data using Estimation, Double-Mass
Analysis, Mean Areal Precipitation, Depth-Area-Duration Analysis
and Frequency Analysis

Content • Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle.
• Precipitation: Occurrence and Measurement.
o Formation, Forms (Philippine Setting), Types and Artificially
Induced.
o Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar and Satellite
Estimates
o Precipitation Data Analysis: Estimation of Missing data,
Double-Mass Analysis, Mean Areal Precipitation, Depth-Area-
Duration Analysis, Frequency Analysis.
Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
Readings
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with
References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York
Hydrology
Phase 3
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Precipitation: Occurrence and Measurement
Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is
the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth.
Most precipitation falls as rain.
Formation
The clouds floating overhead contain water vapor and cloud droplets, which are small drops
of condensed water. These droplets are way too small to fall as precipitation, but they are large enough
to form visible clouds. Water is continually evaporating and condensing in the sky. If you look closely
at a cloud you can see some parts disappearing (evaporating) while other parts are growing
(condensation). Most of the condensed water in clouds does not fall as precipitation because their fall
speed is not large enough to overcome updrafts which support the clouds.
For precipitation to happen, first tiny water droplets must condense on even tinier dust, salt,
or smoke particles, which act as a nucleus. Water droplets may grow as a result of additional
condensation of water vapor when the particles collide. If enough collisions occur to produce a droplet
with a fall velocity which exceeds the cloud updraft speed, then it will fall out of the cloud as
precipitation. This is not a trivial task since millions of cloud droplets are required to produce a single
raindrop. A more efficient mechanism (known as the Bergeron-Findeisen process) for producing a
precipitation-sized drop is through a process which leads to the rapid growth of ice crystals at the
expense of the water vapor present in a cloud. These crystals may fall as snow, or melt and fall as
rain.
Forms (Philippine Setting)
In the Philippines, an archipelago of thousands of islands, the climate is generally tropical

maritime, with a relatively cool season from December to February, when the north-east trade winds
prevail, and a hot, humid and rainy season from May to November, when the south-west monsoon
prevails. Between March and May, before the arrival of the summer monsoon, the temperature
increases and reaches the highest levels of the year, especially in the center-north and in the interior
of the larger islands: hence, in general the coolest month (or the least hot) is January, while the
warmest is May.
In the north of Luzon, cool air masses can sometimes arrive from December to March, so
much so that at night the temperature can drop to around 12/15 °C (54/59 °F). On the southernmost
islands, close to the Equator, temperatures are more stable, and remain high all year round.
The least rainy period varies depending on area, and as weeks pass it advances proceeding

Phase 3
from north to south: in Legazpi (Luzon Island), rainfall drops below 200 mm (8 in) per month from
March to May, while in Borongan (Samar Island), this happens from July to September.
Legazpi
Here is the average precipitation in Legazpi, located in the south-east of the island of Luzon.
In the rest of the Philippines, the climate can be defined as tropical, since it is possible to
identify a dry season, which usually runs from February to April, but in the most sheltered areas the
rains are rare even in December and January. The dry season is more evident in the western part (blue
area), while it's less evident, but still present, in the central part (green area); in contrast, the summer
monsoon is generally more intense in the western part.
In this area, the biggest cities of the Philippines are found, starting from the capital, Manila.
The northernmost islands (Batanes and Babuyan) are located far to the north, almost at the
Tropic; in winter, they are affected by cool air masses from the Asian continent, so the weather is
pretty cool from December to February, with average highs around 24/25 °C (75/77 °F).
Here is the average precipitation in Basco.

Phase 3
Types
1. Rain
- Most commonly observed, drops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch / 0.5 mm or more) are
considered rain. However, smaller drops are also considered raindrops if, in contrast
to drizzle, they are widely separated.
2. Drizzle
- Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very close together.
Drizzle appears to float while following air currents, but unlike fog droplets, it falls to
the ground. Quite often fog and drizzle occur together.

Phase 3
3. Ice Pellets (Sleet)
- Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are round or irregular
hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops, or largely melted then refrozen
snowflakes.
4. Hail
- Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or
frozen together in irregular lumps. Associated with thunderstorms, individual hail
stones are ¼ inch (5 mm) or greater in diameter. Hail sizes of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more
are indicative of severe thunderstorms.

Phase 3
5. Small Hail (Snow Pellets)
- Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice that are round or sometimes conical.
Diameters are less than ¼ inch (5 mm).
6. Snow
- Precipitation of snow crystals that are mostly branched and in the form of six-pointed
stars.

Phase 3
7. Snow Grains
- Precipitation of very small, white, and opaque grains of ice. Basically, this is frozen
drizzle.
8. Ice Crystals
- Generally occurring in very cold regions, they are falling crystals of ice in the form of
needles, columns, or plates. Also called 'diamond dust', ice crystals appear like fog
with individual water particles forming directly as ice. The shape of the individual ice
crystals causes the 'light pillar' optical effect above the light source.

Phase 3
Artificially Induced
It’s a practice of artificially inducing or increasing precipitation through clouds by adding

external agents.
The foreign particles which are drenched over these clouds can be Dry Ice (solid carbon
dioxide), Silver Iodide, Salt powder etc. This process is known as Cloud Seeding. This stimulation
is done by aero planes or rockets. And then finally "rain on".
How it is done?
Agitation: The first stage includes the use of chemicals to stimulate the air mass
upwind of target area to rise and form clouds. These chemicals absorb the water vapor and
helps in the process of condensation. Chemicals like - Calcium Oxide, compound of Urea and
Ammonium Nitrate or Chloride Calcium Carbonate.
Building Up Stage: In the second stage the mass of the cloud is build up by urea, dry
ice, kitchen salt etc. to increase the density of the clouds.
Seeding: In the final stage of pursuing the artificial rain, super cool chemicals (dry ice
or iodide) are bombarded with the pressurized canister onto the base of the clouds to build the
beads of water and make them fall as rain.

Phase 3
Gages and Networks
The simplest way to measure precipitation is to put a rain gauge at a point on the landscape.
Almost all rain gauges have a funnel down to an opening that then drops water into a collection
container. The amount of water in the container is either measured at specified intervals, or it is
automatically measured and recorded. Knowing the size of the top of the funnel relative to the size
of the collection container lets us related the volume or depth of water in the container to the amount
of rainfall.
Here’s what’s called a standard rain gauge:

Phase 3
Typically, the SRG is a metal cylinder with a funnel on top and a plastic measuring tube in
the middle. The measuring tube can handle up to 2.00 inches of rain before overflowing into the larger
outer cylinder. During the winter, the observer removes the funnel and inner tube and allows the snow
to collect in the outer tube. The observer then melts the snow and measures it, getting an accurate
water equivalent to report.
The limitation of these rain gauges is that someone has to go outside and manually measure
the water level in the gauge, so it is difficult to get frequent (sub-daily) measurements of rainfall.
Enter the recording rain gauges.
Radar and Satellite Estimates
Ground-based weather radar:
Ground-based weather radars emerged during World War II and have since been used to
observe precipitation, mostly over land. Ground-based radars send out pulses of microwave energy
in narrow beams that scan in a circular pattern. When the microwave pulse encounters precipitation
particles in the atmosphere, the energy is scattered in all directions, sending some energy back to the
radar. These measurements are used to estimate intensity, altitude, precipitation type (e.g., rain, snow,
hail), and motion. Obtaining continuous measurements of precipitation from ground-based systems
(e.g., from rain gauges and radar systems) presents a challenge due to large gaps between monitoring
sites on land and huge gaps over the ocean.

Phase 3
Earth-observing satellites:
Earth-observing satellites can provide frequent estimates of precipitation at a global scale. To

do this, satellites carry instruments designed to observe specific atmospheric characteristics such as
cloud temperatures and precipitation particles, or hydrometeors. These data are extremely useful for
filling in data gaps that exist between rain gauge and ground-based radar sites and offer insights into
when, where, and how much precipitation is falling worldwide. Satellite data also provide a unique
vantage point. While ground-based instruments can directly measure or estimate how much
precipitation falls to the ground, satellite instruments estimate the amount of electromagnetic
radiation (or energy) that is emitted or reflected either from the tops of the clouds or from the rain
droplets themselves, providing a top-down view. Spaceborne radar instruments can even observe the
three-dimensional structure of precipitation. Such satellite observations are detailed enough to allow
scientists to distinguish between rain, snow, and other precipitation types, as well as observe the
structure, intensity, and dynamics of storms.

Phase 3
Precipitation Data Analysis
Estimation of Missing Data
Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of absence of the
observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing precipitation of a station is
estimated from the observations of precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evenly
spaced around the station with the missing record as possible.
The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging stations whose
data are used to calculate the missing station data are called index stations.
Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data. Three approaches are
used:
1. Arithmetic mean
Used when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which data are
being reconstructed. The missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:
𝑖=𝑛
1
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
Where 'n' is the number of nearby stations, 'Pi' is precipitation at ith station and
'Px' is missing precipitation.
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … . +𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑥 =
𝑛
2. Normal Ratio Method:
According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:
𝑖=𝑛
1 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ 𝑃
𝑛 𝑁𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1

Phase 3
1 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = [ 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … + 𝑃]
𝑛 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁𝑛 𝑛
Where:
Px = missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x'

Pi = precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group
of index stations
Nx = the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station
Ni = the normal annual precipitation value for 'ith' station.
Double Mass Analysis
A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:
1. Compute cumulative rainfall amounts for suspect gauge and check gauges.
2. Plot cumulative rainfall amounts against each other (divergence from a straight
line indicates error)
3. Multiplying erroneous data after change by a correction factor k where:
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

𝑘=
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

Phase 3
Example 1:
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:
Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation
9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
(cm)
Normal Annual
100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
precipitation (cm)
Solution:
In this example, the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at stations A, B, D
and E are given and missing precipitation at station 'C' is to be calculated whose normal annual
precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio
method is to be applied.
10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35
After the addition of 10% of Nc to Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85
And by subtracting 10% of Nc from Nc we get a value of 84.15
So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.
If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method would be
used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are out of this range so the
normal ratio method is applicable here, according to which
𝑖=𝑛
1 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ 𝑃
𝑛 𝑁𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1
1 93.5 93.5 93.5 93.5

𝑃𝑥 = [ (9.7) + (8.3) + (11.7) + (8.0)]
4 100.3 109.5 125.7 117.5
𝑃𝑥 = 7.8 𝑐𝑚

Phase 3
Mean Areal Precipitation
A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not representative of the volume of
precipitation falling over a given catchment area. A dense network of point measurements and/or
radar estimates can provide a better representation of the true volume over a given area.
Example:
Various mean areal precipitation computation techniques yield the following results.
1.63" = Distance Weighting

1.90" = Isohyetal Analysis
2.00" = MAPX (WSR 88-D estimate)
2.03" = Thiessen Polygon Weighting
2.21" = Arithmetic Mean of Point Values

Phase 3
1. Arithmetic Mean - This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic
mean of all the point or areal measurements considered in the analysis.

Phase 3
2. Isohyetal Analysis Method - This is a graphical technique which involves drawing

estimated lines of equal rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude
and extent of the resultant rainfall areas of coverage are then considered versus the area
in question in order to estimate the areal precipitation value.

Phase 3
3. Thiessen Polygon Weighting - This is another graphical technique which calculates

station weights based on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen
polygon network. The individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the
values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

Phase 3
4. Distance Weighting - This is another station weighting technique. A grid of point

estimates is made based on a distance weighting scheme. Each observed point value is
given a unique weight for each grid point based on the distance from the grid point in
question. The grid point precipitation value is calculated based on the sum of the
individual station weight multiplied by observed station value. Once the grid points have
all been estimated they are summed and the sum is divided by the number of grid points
to obtain the areal average precipitation.

Phase 3
5. MAPX - This is a NWS-specific gridded technique. Areal runoff zone precipitation

estimates are made using the 4 x 4 km WSR-88D 1-hourly gridded precipitation estimates.
The arithmetic mean calculation technique is used to average the grid point estimates.

Phase 3
Depth Area Duration Analysis
Once the sufficient rainfall records for the region are collected the basic or raw data can be
analysed and processed to produce useful information in the form of curves or statistical values for
use in the planning of water resources development projects. Many hydrologic problems require an
analysis of time as well as areal distribution of storm rainfall. Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis
of a storm is done to determine the maximum amounts of rainfall within various durations over areas
of various sizes.
The preparation of DAD curves is done in following steps:
1. Examine the rainfall records of the region in which catchment area under consideration is
located. Also consider records of meteorologically similar regions. From it prepare a list of
most severe storms with their dates of occurrence and duration.
2. For the listed severe storms prepare isohyetal maps and determine the rainfall values over
the area of each isohyet (rainfall contour).
3. Draw on a graph curves connecting area and rainfall values for different durations say 1-
day rainfall, 2 days’ rainfall, 3 days’ rainfall.
The curves shown are called Depth-Area-Duration curves:

Phase 3
Use of DAD Curves:
Although most severe storm in the listed storms may not have occurred right over the
catchment under consideration there is possibility of such occurrence. So from DAD curves 1 day, 2
days, 3-day rainfall depths for the catchment area of the proposed project are read. These give the
rainfall depths when the storms are centered over the catchment.
Frequency Analysis
In hydrology, frequency analysis of station rainfall data is done for use in design of bridges
and culverts on highways, design of storm drains etc. With the advancement of science of hydrology
rainfall frequency analysis is done using Gumble’s extreme-value distribution and annual series data.
Now the frequency analysis concept is applied on a seasonal basis and for areal frequency.
The rainfall records of deficient length have to be extended by station year method. The results of
frequency analysis are plotted on the log-log paper. The typical intensity-duration frequency curves
are given below.

Phase 3
References:
surface.
https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/philippines
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/precipitation-and-water-cycle?qt-
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/preciptypes
https://www.studytonight.com/post/what-is-artificial-rain
https://olc.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/sco/E7B1C4DE-C187-5EDB-3EF2-
897802DEA3BF/Nasa/chapter2.html
https://www.weather.gov/abrfc/map
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/depth-area-and-intensity-duration-frequency-curves-
differences/60431#:~:text=Depth-Area-
Duration%20(DAD,is%20done%20in%20following%20steps%3A&text=Examine%20the%20rainfall%20
records%20of,area%20under%20consideration%20is%20located.

Holy Angel University
School Of Engineering and Architecture
1st Semester S.Y. 2021-2022
HYDROLOGY
IMPORTANT PHASES OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
PRECIPITATION:
OCCURRENCE AND
MEASUREMENT
Submitted by:
CE-307 - GROUP 3
CAASI, ALLAIN
DIZON, JOSHUA V.
ESTRADA, FERDINAND ADRIEL M.
GAN, MARIA CRYSTAL NICOLE H.
MENDOZA, GRACE
SIBAL, EMMANUEL
Submitted to:
ENGR. MARCO T. NELMIDA

PRECIPITATION
The Term precipitation denotes all the form of water that
reaches earth through the atmosphere. The term Precipitation
includes different forms of water, it can be in the form of snow
fall, rainfall, hail, frost and dew.
PRECIPITATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is
characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity and
abundant rainfall. It is similar in many respects to the climate
of the countries of Central America. Temperature, humidity, and
rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.
Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines,
excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6o C. The
coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC
while the warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of
28.3oC. Latitude is an insignificant factor in the variation of
temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in
temperature. Thus, the mean annual temperature of Baguio with an
elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3oC. This makes the temperature
of Baguio comparable with those in the temperate climate and

because of this, it is known as the summer capital of the
Philippines.
The difference between the mean annual temperature of the
southernmost station in Zamboanga and that of the northernmost
station in Laoag is insignificant. In other words, there is
essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature of
places in Luzon, Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea
level.
Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Due
to high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the
Philippines has a high relative humidity. The average monthly
relative humidity varies between 71 percent in March and 85
percent in September. The combination of warm temperature and
high relative and absolute humidities give rise to high sensible
temperature throughout the archipelago. It is especially
uncomfortable during March to May, when temperature and humidity
attain their maximum levels.
Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the
Philippines. Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies
from one region to another, depending upon the direction of the
moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems.

The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to
4,064 millimeters annually. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and
eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall while
the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of
rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual
rainfall is only 978 millimeters.
Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the
country can be divided into two major seasons: (1) the rainy
season, from June to November; and (2) the dry season, from
December to May. The dry season may be subdivided further into
(a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and (b) the
hot dry season, from March to May.
Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are
recognized, which are described as follows:
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather
conditions of the Philippines. A great portion of the rainfall,
humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons.
They generally originate in the region of the Marianas and
Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same
latitudinal location as Mindanao. Their movements follow a
northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being directly
hit by the majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This
makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture
and industrial development.
CLASSIFICATION OF STORM WARNING IN THE PHILIPPINES BEFORE AND
AFTER TYPHOON YOLANDA
A typhoon is the same thing as a hurricane and a cyclone — the
difference is in the location. Hurricanes occur in the Atlantic
and Northeast Pacific. Typhoons, like Haiyan, are found in the
Northwest Pacific Ocean. In the South Pacific and the Indian
Ocean, the same type of storm is called a cyclone. But
scientifically, they are all known as tropical cyclones.
When there’s a bit of weather disturbance, a warm tropical
ocean, moisture, and a light wind — conditions may be right to
produce a cyclone. By whatever name, these storms can produce
violent winds and waves, torrential rains, and flooding.
Typhoon Yolanda
Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Super Typhoon Yolanda, made
landfall in the Philippines on Nov. 8, 2013, as a Category 5
storm. It laid waste to the Visayas group of islands, the
country’s central region and home to 17 million people. Haiyan
was the most powerful storm in 2013 and one of the most powerful
typhoons of all time.

With wind speeds sustained at more than 150 mph, Haiyan was
classified as a super typhoon. However, its massive storm surge
was even more destructive. Local officials estimated that
Tacloban City on the island of Leyte was 90% destroyed.
The typhoon’s fury affected more than 14 million people across
44 provinces, displacing 4.1 million people, killing more than
6,000 people and leaving 1,800 missing. In addition, Typhoon
Haiyan damaged 1.1 million houses, destroyed 33 million coconut
trees (a major source of livelihoods), and disrupted the
livelihoods of 5.9 million workers. Overall damage is estimated
at $5.8 billion.
CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
Tropical cyclones derive their energy from the latent heat of
condensation which makes them exist only over the oceans and die
out rapidly on land. One of its distinguishing features is its
central sea-level pressure of 900 mb or lower and surface winds
often exceeding 100 knots. They reach their greatest intensity
while located over warm tropical waters and they begin to weaken
as they move inland. The intensity of tropical cyclones vary,
thus , we can classify them based upon their degree of
intensity.
Tropical Cyclone Classification

Tropical disturbance
When an area of disturbed weather in the tropics causes a moving
area of thunderstorms, everyone pays a bit closer attention. In
the Atlantic, when that area of thunderstorms continues for 24
hours or more, the U.S. National Hurricane Center (NHC) calls
the weather system a tropical disturbance and starts a formal
watch.
Tropical depression
If the area of thunderstorms in a tropical disturbance organizes
in such a way that a rotation develops and winds become strong
(20 knots or 37 km/h), the system is upgraded to a tropical
depression and it is given a number. Tropical Depression 10 from
2004 is shown in the image. This storm never strengthened beyond
the tropical depression stage.
Tropical storm
If the winds continue to increase to sustained gale strength (34
knots or 63 km/h) the NHC upgrades the system to a tropical
storm. While the winds may be tame in comparison with a
hurricane, rainfalls of 100-200 mm are not uncommon. The storm
is now given a name.
Shown here is Alex, as a tropical storm on both August 1 and
August 2, 2004. Alex eventually strengthened to a Category 3
hurricane as it moved through Canadian waters.
Hurricane
Should the winds reach 64 knots (119 km/h) or more, a hurricane
is born. It is at the hurricane stage that the “eye of the
storm” is often visible. There are 5 classes of hurricanes on
the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale. Pictured here is Hurricane
Alex in 2004.
Hurricane Alex, August 5, 2004
Hurricane Alex, the first major hurricane to enter Canadian
waters in over 20 years*, was a Category 3 storm as it moved
into Canadian waters. It was the first hurricane on record in
the Atlantic to reach the Category 3 level at such a northern
latitude. Alex’s sustained winds in Canadian waters were
estimated at 180 km/h. This is about 50% more destructive than
the winds of Hurricane Juan (2003).
* Debbie (1982) had been the last major hurricane to affect
Canadian waters before the arrival of Alex, more than 20 years
later.
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale is a five-point rating scale
used to describe a hurricane's present intensity. This scale is
used to estimate the potential property damage and flooding
expected along the coast from a hurricane landfall. Wind speed
is the determining factor in the scale, as storm surge values
are highly dependent on the slope of the continental shelf and

the shape of the coastline in the landfall region. (Note: this
scale is intended to be used in southern latitudes and has not
proven to be that useful for Canada. For example, during
Hurricane Juan (2003), the scale was not very helpful because
the winds were marginal Category 2 strength yet the damage to
trees was at the Category 3 level.)
Types of tropical cyclone categories. Photo: NOAA
International Standard for Surface Winds Relating to Tropical
Cyclones
TCType Wind(km/h) Surge(m) Rain(mm) Waves(m)
Depression > 37 0.5 200+ depends
Tropical Storm > 63 1.0 200+ depends
Hurricane
Category 1 > 118 1.2+ 200+ depends
Hurricane
Category 2 >152 1.8+ 200+ depends
Hurricane
Hurricane
Category 4 >209 4.0+ 200+ depends
Hurricane
Surface winds
Surface winds reported in tropical cyclones follow an
international standard: they are maximum sustained winds
averaged over 1 minute, taken at the 10-m level (33 feet) above
the surface away from buildings, structures and friction of the
ground.
The classification of tropical cyclones according to the
strength of the associated winds as adopted by PAGASA as of 01
May 2015 are as follows:
TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - a tropical cyclone with maximum
sustained winds of up to 61 kilometers per hour (kph) or less
than 33 nautical miles per hour (knots) .
TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed
of 62 to 88 kph or 34 - 47 knots.
SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS) , a tropical cyclone with maximum
wind speed of 89 to 117 kph or 48 - 63 knots.
TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 118
to 220 kph or 64 - 120 knots.
SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed
exceeding 220 kph or more than 120 knots.
NSCP 2010 vs NSCP 2015
It was typhoon Yolanda and the 7.2 magnitude earthquake that
happened in Cebu and Bohol in 2013 who paved the way for the
transitioning of the NSCP 2010 to the NSCP 2015. Normally, the

NSCP is updated every 10 years but this time it was only in a
span of 5 years. For load combinations, NSCP 2010 and 2015 are
basically the same. NSCP 2015 is more detailed in terms of maps,
tables, and also the importance factor for earthquakes were
adjusted. A prominent change from NSCP 2010 TO 2015 is the
decrease in the coefficient for wind loads. Most changes in the
NSCP 2015 are for parking garage and ramp live loads.
NSCP 2015 now allows a 200mm minimum girder dimension from the
previously 250mm and 250mm minimum column dimension from the
previously 300mm.. This has a lot of cost implications. The
previous 250mm made many architects a bit angry especially when
your project is a typical residential one. However, let's not
forget that implementation of this minimum dimension should be
carefully observed since many recent earthquakes prove too
strong for very small beam and column dimensions.
According to a study which compared the structural designs of a
standard three-storey building in Apayao using the NSCP 2010
versus using the NSCP 2015. The existing plans of the building
were used for the design of the building model. Dead loads, live
loads, wind loads, and earthquake loads were the loads needed to
be compared in the study. The data from these loads were
simulated using STAAD and ETABS. Design adjustments were made
during and after obtaining the output. The final analysis and
evaluation were made using different parameters such as

stresses, moment diagrams, shear reinforcements, and areas of
steel reinforcements. It shows that there is significant change
in the design of the standard three-storey house building using
the NSCP 2010 and NSCP 2015.
ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA
Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records
because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental
failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing
precipitation of a station is estimated from the observations of
precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evenly
spaced around the station with the missing record as possible.
The station whose data is missing is called interpolation
station and gauging stations whose data are used to calculate
the missing station data are called index stations. Data from
surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data using
the following methods:
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
Used when normal annual precipitation is
within ±10% of the gauge for which data
are being reconstructed. The missing
precipitation 'Px' is given by the
formula.
Where 'n' is the number of nearby stations, 'Pi' is
precipitation at ith station and 'Px' is missing
precipitation.
2. Normal Ratio Method
Used when normal annual precipitation is
more than ±10% of the gauge for which
data are being reconstructed.
Where:
Px = missing precipitation for any
storm at the interpolation station 'x'
Pi = precipitation for the same period
for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of index
stations
Nx = the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x'
station
Ni = the normal annual precipitation value for 'ith'
station.
EXAMPLE:
1. Precipitation station "X" was inoperative for part of
a month during which a storm occurred. The storm
totals at three surrounding stations A, B and C were
respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual
precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C are

respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate
the storm precipitation for station 'X'.
SOLUTION:
Given:
Pa = 10.7 cm ; Na = 112 cm
Pb = 8.90 cm ; Nb = 93.5 cm
Pc = 12.2 cm ; Nc = 119.9 cm
Px = ? ; Nx = 97.8 cm
*Identify first the method to be used by solving:
10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.
*Check normal annual precipitation of each station

if it’s within or beyond ± 10%
Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm Þ More than ± 10% of

Nx (no need of calculating Nx - Nb and Nx - Nc
*If the normal annual precipitation is within the

range use Arithmetic Mean Method and if beyond, use
Normal Ratio Method. Here Normal Ratio Method is
used:
Px = (1/3)[(97.8*10.7)/112 + (97.8*8.90)/93.5 +
(97.8*12.2)/119.9]
Px = 9.5 cm
2. The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D
in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28, and 92.01 cm,
respectively. In the year 1975, station D was
inoperative and the stations A, B, and C recorded
annual rainfall of 91.11, 72.23, and 79.89 cm,
respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in
that year.
SOLUTION:
Given:
Pa = 91.11 cm ; Na = 80.97 cm
Pb = 72.23 cm ; Nb = 67.59 cm
Pc = 78.89 cm ; Nc = 76.28 cm
Px = ? ; Nx = 92.01 cm
*Identify first the method to be used by solving:
10% of Nx = 92.01 x 10/100 = 9.20 cm.
*Check normal annual precipitation of each station

if it’s within or beyond ± 10%
Nx - Na = 92.01 - 80.97 = -10.83 cm Þ More than ±

10% of Nx (no need of calculating Nx - Nb and Nx -
Nc
*If the normal annual precipitation is within the

range use Arithmetic Mean Method and if beyond, use
Normal Ratio Method. Here Normal Ratio Method is
used:
Px = (1/3)[(92.01*91.11)/80.97 + (92.01*72.23)/67.59
+ (92.01*78.89)/76.28]
Px = 99.41 cm
MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

It is when the precipitation in a specific area is expressed as
an average depth of liquid water over the area; the average
depth of precipitation over the specific area calculated on
timescales on a storm, seasonal, or annual basis.
Methods used in Large Areas:
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
2. Distance Weighting Method
1. ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amount of
rainfall at the individual rain-gauge stations in the area.
Formula:
⎡ ∑𝑃 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Pave = ⎢ 𝑛 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Where:
Pave = average depth of rainfall over the area
∑P1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations
n = number of rain-gauge stations in the area

Procedure:
1. Analyze the given problem and locate the rain-gauge
stations.
2. Exercise the formula with the given data.
PROBLEM 1
The average annual precipitation for the four sub-basins
constituting a large river basin in, are: 289, 334, 442, and 397
cms. What is the average annual precipitation for the asin as a
whole? When calculated by the Arithmetic Average Method.
PROCEDURE:
stations:
a) Identify the Formula:
⎡ ∑𝑃 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Pave = ⎢ 𝑛 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
b) Identify the Given Data:
P1 = 289cm P3 = 442cm n = 4 stations
P2 = 334cm P4 = 397cm
2. Exercise the formula with the given data:
a) Substitute the given data to the working formula:
⎡ ∑𝑃 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Pave = ⎢ 𝑛 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
289 + 334 + 442 + 397
Pave = ⎡ ⎤ = 365.5
⎣ 4 ⎦
Answer: Pave = 365.5 cm
PROBLEM 2
Analyze the given problem and locate the rain-gauge stations:
⎡ ∑𝑃 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Pave = ⎢ 𝑛 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
P1 = 1.8in P3 = 1.0in
P2 = 1.2in n = 3 stations
*Disregard ARG4 because it is outside the boundary of the

catchment area.
2. Exercise the formula with the given data:
a) Substitute the given data to the working formula:
⎡ ∑𝑃 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Pave = ⎢ 𝑛 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1.8 + 1.2+ 1.0
Pave = ⎡ ⎤ = 1.333333333
⎣ 3 ⎦
Answer: Pave = 1.333 in
2. DISTANCE WEIGHTING METHOD

This method is based on the functions of the inverse distances
in which the weights are defined by the opposite of the distance
and normalized so that their sum equals one. The weights
decrease as the distance increases.
Formulas:
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
1 1
Wi = 2 = 2 2 Px =
𝐷𝑖 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖
*Formula for the weightage of each index station *Formula

for the missing rainfall data of the
station (x)
Where:
Wi = weightage X = the missing rainfall data
of the station
*The co-ordinate of the missing station is taken as (0,0).
*The co-ordinates of the surrounding index stations (xi,yi) are
found.
Procedure:
stations.
PROBLEM 1
In a river basin, station A was inoperative during a storm,

while stations B, D, D and E surrounding A were in operation,
registering 74mm, 88mm, 71mm and 80mm of precipitation. The
coordinates of B, C, D, and E are (9,6) (12,-9) (-11,-6) and
(-7,7), respectively, with coordinates of A as (0,0).
Estimate the missing storm precipitation of station A by the
Inverse Distance Method.
PROCEDURE:
stations.
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
1 1
Wi = 2 = 2 2 Px =
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖

COORDINATES PRECIPITATION
A (0,0) B – 74mm
B (9,6) C – 88mm
C (12,-9) D – 71mm
D (-11,-6) E – 80mm
E (-7,7)
a) Substitute the given data to the working formulas:
1
FORMULA (1) : Wi = 2
𝐷𝑖
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑏 = (9) +(6) = 117 , 𝑊𝑏 = 1/𝐷𝑏 = 1/117 = 8.547 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑐 = (12) +(− 9) = 225 , 𝑊𝑐 = 1/𝐷𝑐 = 1/225 = 4.444 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑑 = (− 11) +(− 6) = 157 , 𝑊𝑑 = 1/𝐷𝑑 = 1/157 = 6.369 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑒 = (− 7) +(7) = 98 , 𝑊𝑒 = 1/𝐷𝑒 = 1/98 = 10.204 x 10
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
FORMULA (2) : Px =
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
(74 𝑥 8.547) + (88 𝑥 4.444) + (71 𝑥 6.369) + (80 𝑥 10.204)
PA = = 8.547 + 4.444 + 6.369 + 10.204
= 77.52905561
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖
Answer: PA = 77.529 mm
PROBLEM 2
Station (x) failed to report the rainfall recorded during a
storm with respect to east-west and north-south axes set up at
station (x). The coordinates of the six surrounding gauges which
are the nearest to station (x) in the respective quadrants are,
(-6,-3) (8,-4) (4,-7) (5,-2) (2,-6) and (-7,-3). Determine the
missing rainfall at (x), if the storm rainfalls at the six
surrounding gauges are 67, 94, 73, 82, 65 and 59, in millimeters
respectively.
PROCEDURE:
stations.
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
1 1
Wi = 2 = 2 2 Px =
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖

COORDINATES PRECIPITATION
X (0,0)
A (-6,-3) A – 67mm
B (8,-4) B – 94mm
C (4,-7) C – 73mm
D (5,-2) D – 82mm
E (2,-6) E - 65mm
F (-7,-3) F - 59mm

a) Substitute the given data to the working formulas:
1
FORMULA (1) : Wi = 2
𝐷𝑖
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑎 = (− 6) +(− 3) = 45 , 𝑊𝑎 = 1/𝐷𝑎 = 1/45 = 22.222 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑏 = (8) +(− 4) = 80 , 𝑊𝑏 = 1/𝐷𝑏 = 1/80 = 12.500 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑐 = (4) +(− 7) = 65 , 𝑊𝑐 = 1/𝐷𝑐 = 1/65 = 15.385 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑑 = (5) +(− 2) = 29 , 𝑊𝑑 = 1/𝐷𝑑 = 1/29 = 34.483 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑒 = (2) +(− 6) = 40 , 𝑊𝑒 = 1/𝐷𝑒 = 1/40 = 25.000 x 10
2 2 2 2 −3
𝐷𝑓 = (− 7) +(− 3) = 58 , 𝑊𝑓 = 1/𝐷𝑓 = 1/58 = 17.241 x 10
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
FORMULA (2) : Px =
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖𝑊𝑖
(67 𝑥22.222) + (94 𝑥 12.5) + (73 𝑥 15.385) + (82 𝑥 34.483) + (65 𝑥 25) + (59 𝑥 17.241)
Px = = 34.483 + 12.5 + 15.385 + 34.483 + 25 + 17.241
𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑊𝑖
= 66.55166365
Answer: Px = 66.552 mm
REFERENCES:
● Subramanay, K. (2011, March 20). Engineering Hydrology. Civil
Engineering Terms.
https://www.civilengineeringterms.com/engineering-hydrology/definition-o
f-precipitation-requirements-of-precipitation/
● http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/information/climate-philippines
● https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/692504/pagasa-updates-tropical-cyclone-cla
ssification-system
● https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2013-typhoon-ha
iyan-facts
● https://www.aboutcivil.org/analysis-of-precipitation-data.html
● https://ec.gc.ca/ouragans-hurricanes/default.asp?lang=En&n=AB062B74-1
● https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Areal_precipitation
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tG--yYyIMvY
● https://popups.uliege.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=1003
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1c65A2aYYWA
● http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2210
● https://youtu.be/gdstT7kRm-U
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybsVPTV7dzU&t=937s
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JTt4a6fN77C4&t=139s

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Hydrology

Created by: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Hydrology

This chapter focuses on:

 Aquatic Environment by V.J. Inglezakis, A.N. Menegaki, in

J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 1 of 10

-Jacques Yves Cousteau

Difference Between Hydrology and Hydraulics

How do civil engineers use hydrology in land development?

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 2 of 10

The Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 3 of 10

Clyde hydro dam

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 4 of 10

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 5 of 10

Dynamic and complex: the global water cycle

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon of Earth’s atmosphere trapping a range of

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 6 of 10

Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation

The typical plant, including any found in a

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Infiltration and Percolation

Surface and Sub-Surface Run-off

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This chapter focuses on:

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How to determine atmospheric stability?

Imagine a ball in water:

– When does it rise? When it is lighter than environment, it will rise.

– When does it sink? When it is heavier than environment, it will sink.

Same is true with air parcels.

Temperature determines the density of an air parcel at a given pressure.

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 3 of 12

As the parcel rises, it will adiabatically expand and cool.

* adiabatic - a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an

Lapse rate (0C/km) - rate of temperature change with height.

Dry-adiabatic lapse rate - unsaturated parcels cool at a rate of 10°C/km. This is

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 4 of 12

Homogeneous nucleation (condensation of pure water with no dust or aerosols present)

Heterogeneous nucleation occurs much more often than homogeneous nucleation.

Growth and Distribution

1. The gradient in vapor

2. The surface area 4πr2

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Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 8 of 12

Temperature: Geographic Distribution

A) Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 9 of 12

B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature

 The phenomenon in which temperature increases with increasing altitude

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This chapter focuses on:

Forms (Philippine Setting)

In the Philippines, an archipelago of thousands of islands, the climate is generally tropical

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