Pneumatics

• pneu·mat·ic adjective \nu̇-ˈma-tik, nyu̇-\

• : of, relating to, or using gas (as air or wind):
• a : moved or worked by air pressure
• b (1) : adapted for holding or inflated with compressed air
• (2) : having air-filled cavities
• The word pneumatics is a derivative of the Greek
word:- pneuma

Session 6

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• Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used,
both men and women are included.
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• We will discusses the characteristics of gases;

• and compare them with those of liquids.

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• We will also explain factors which affect the properties of gases;

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• identify and explain the gas laws;

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• identify gases commonly used in pneumatics, and their pressure ranges.

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• We will also discusses hazards of pneumatic gases;

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• methods of controlling contamination;

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• and safety precautions associated with compressed
gases.

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• Development of Pneumatics.
• Probably the earliest use of pneumatics were to separate chaff from grain

• and to move ships. Charnley 2019 10

• One of the first pneumatic devices was the blow gun used by primitive people.

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• In the latter part of the eighteenth century, heated air was used to carry the first
balloon aloft.

• The heated air, being lighter than the surrounding air, caused the balloon to rise.
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• Many of the principles of hydraulics apply to pneumatics.
• For example, Pascal’s law applies to gases as well as liquids.
• Also, like hydraulics, the development of pneumatics depends on closely fitted parts and the
development of gaskets and packings.
• Since the invention of the air compressor, pneumatics has become a very reliable way to
transmit power.
• Probably one of the most common uses of pneumatic power is in the operation of
pneumatic tools.

• PUWER
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• However, pneumatics is also of great importance in large and complex systems
such as propulsion and control systems.

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• Characteristics of Gases.
• Gas is one of the three states of matter.

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• It has characteristics similar to those of liquids in that it has no definite shape
but, conforms to the shape of its container and readily transmits pressure.
• Just like my favourite liquid in a glass.

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• Gases differ from liquids in that they have no definite volume.
• That is, regardless of the size or shape of the containing vessel, a gas will
completely fill it.
• Gases are highly compressible, while liquids are only slightly so.
• Also, gases are lighter than equal volumes of liquids, making gases less dense
than liquids.

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• Density.
• Early experiments were conducted concerning the behavior of air and
similar gases.
• These experiments were conducted by scientists such as Boyle,

• and Charles.
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• Boyles Law states that:-
• The volume of a definite quantity of dry gas is inversely proportional to the pressure, provided
the temperature remains constant.
• Mathematically Boyle's law can be expressed as P1V1 = P2V2
• V1 is the original volume
• V2 is the new volume
• P1 is original pressure
• P2 is the new pressure

• Suppose you have a gas with 45.0 ml of volume and has a pressure of 760.mm. If the pressure is
increased to 800mm and the temperature remains constant then according to Boyle's Law the
new volume is 42.8 ml.
• (760mm)(45.0ml) = (800mm)(V2)
• V2=42.8ml

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• Charles Law can be stated as the volume occupied by any sample of gas at a constant pressure is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.
• V / T =constant
• V is the volume
• T is the absolute temperature (measured in Kelvin)
• Charles's Law can be rearranged into two other useful equations.
• 1) V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
• V1 is the initial volume
• T1 is the initial temperature
• V2 is the final volume
• T2 is the final temperature
• 2) V2 = V1 (T2 / T1)
• V2 is the final volume
• T2 is the final temperature
• V1 is the initial volume
• T1 is the initial temperature
• Important: Charles's Law only works when the pressure is constant.
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• Combined Law
• The combined gas law is a combination of Boyle's Law and Charles's Law; hence its name the combined gas law. In the combined gas law, the
volume of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature and inversely proportional to the pressure.
• This can be written as PV / T = constant. Since for a given amount of gas there is a constant then we can write P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2.
• P1 is the initial pressure
• V1 is the initial volume
• T1 is the initial temperature (in Kelvin)
• P2 is the final pressure
• V2 is the final volume
• T2 is the final temperature (in Kelvin)
• This equation is useful if you have the current volume, temperature, and pressure of a gas, and if you have two of the three final values of the
gas.

• For example if you have 4.0 liters of gas at STP, and you want to know the volume of the gas at 2.0 atm of pressure and 30o C, the equation
can be setup as follows:
• (1.0)(4.0) / 273 = (2.0)(V2) / 303
• (V2)(2)(273) = (1)(4)(303)
• V2 = 2.2
• Therefore the new volume is 2.2 liters.

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• The simplest demonstration of Boyle's Law & Charles Law is a hand bicycle pump.
• Put your finger on the outlet of the pump & press down.
• Your finger feels warm.
• As pressure increases, volume decreases, and temperature increases.
• Pull the piston back & this reverses.

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• Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac's Law states:
• Gay-Lussac first formulated the law, Gay-Lussac's Law, stating that if the mass and volume of a gas are held
constant then gas pressure increases linearly as the temperature rises. This is sometimes written as P = k T,
where k is a constant dependent on the mass and volume of the gas and T is temperature on an absolute scale
(in terms of the ideal gas law, k = n·R/V).(Basically Charles Law)
• This law led directly to the formulation of Avogadro's Law.
• He and Jean-Baptiste Biot made a hot-air balloon ascent to a height of 7,016 metres (23,018 ft) in an early
investigation of the Earth's atmosphere. He wanted to collect samples of the air at different heights to record
differences in temperature and moisture.

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• The results of their experiments indicated that the gases’ behavior follows the
law known as the Ideal Gas Law.

• It states;
• “For a given weight of any gas, the product of the absolute pressure and
the volume occupied, divided by the absolute temperature, is constant”.

• Or, as an equation:-

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• Ideal Gas Law
• The ideal gas law is a combination of all the gas laws. The ideal gas law can be expressed as PV = nRT.
• P is the pressure in atm
• V is the volume in liters
• n is the number of moles
• R is a constant
• T is the temperature in Kelvin
• The constant R is calculated from a theroretical gas called the ideal gas.
• The most commonly used form of R is .0821 L * atm / (K * mol). This R will allow the units to cancel so the
equation will work out.

• To find the volume of 2.00 moles gas that is at 1.00 atm of pressure and 235 Kelvin, use the ideal gas law
equation.
• (1.00 atm)(V) = (2.00 mol)(.0821 L * atm / (K * mol))(235 kelvin)
• V = (38.587 L * atm) / (1.00 atm)
• V = 38.6 L

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• Qualities.
• The ideal fluid medium for a pneumatic system is a readily available gas
that is:-
• Non-poisonous (non-toxic).
• Chemically stable.
• Free from any acids that cause corrosion of system components.
• Nonflammable
• Gases that have these desired qualities may not have the required lubricating
power.
• Therefore, lubrication of the components of some pneumatic systems must be
arranged by other means.

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• For example, some air compressors are provided with a lubricating system.
• Some components are lubricated upon installation.
• In some cases, lubrication is introduced into the air supply line.

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• We will discuss these in a later Session.
• Two gases meeting these qualities and most commonly used in pneumatic
systems are:-
• Compressed air.
• Compressed Nitrogen.

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• Compressed Air.
• Compressed air is a mixture of all gases contained in the atmosphere.
• We will treat compressed air as a gas when it is used as a fluid medium.
• The unlimited supply of air and the ease of compression make compressed air the most
widely used fluid for pneumatic systems.
• Although moisture and solid particles must be removed from the air, it does not require
the extensive distillation or separation process required in the production of other gases.
• Compressed air has most of the desired properties and characteristics of a gas for
pneumatic systems.
• It is non-poisonous and non-flammable but does contain oxygen, which supports
combustion.

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• One of the most undesirable qualities of compressed air as a fluid medium for
pneumatic systems is moisture content.
• The atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture in the form of:-
• Ice
• Water
• Vapor

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• Changes in the temperature of compressed air will cause condensation of
moisture in the pneumatic system.

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• This condensed moisture can be very harmful to the system, as it:-
• Increases corrosion
• Dilutes lubricants.
• May freeze in lines and components during
cold weather.

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• Moisture separators
• And air driers (dehydrators) are installed in the compressed air lines to
minimize or eliminate moisture in systems where moisture would deteriorate
system performance.

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• The supply of compressed air at the required volume and pressure is
provided by an air compressor.

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Main Air
Compressor (30
Bar)

Medical Air Compressor. Filtered

air for BA sets.(250 Bar)
Working Air Oil free Control air
Compressor. (7 Bar) Compressor. (10 Bar)

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• In most systems the compressor is part of the system with distribution lines
leading from the compressor to the devices to be operated.

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• In these systems a receiver is installed in-line between the compressor and
the device to be operated.

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• Other systems receive their supply from cylinders which must be filled at a
centrally located air compressor and then connected to the system.

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• Compressed air systems are categorized by their operating
pressures as follows:

• High-pressure (HP) air.

• Medium-pressure (MP) air.

• And low- pressure (LP) air.

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• High-Pressure Air Systems.

• HP air systems provide compressed air at a nominal operating pressure of

about 250 Bar,

• HP compressed air plants support functions which require high pressures and
high flow rates of compressed air by the addition of HP storage cylinders to
the system.

• Reduction in pressure, if required, is done by using specially designed

pressure-reducing stations.

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• Medium-Pressure Air.

• MP air systems provide compressed air at a nominal operating pressure of

about 30 Bar.

• These pressures are provided either by an MP air compressor or by the HP air

system supplying air through an air bank and pressure-reducing stations

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• Low-Pressure Air.

• LP air systems provide compressed air at a nominal operating pressure

of about 10 Bar.

• The LP air system is supplied with LP air by LP air compressors or by the HP

air system supplying air through an air bank and pressure-reducing
stations.

• LP air is probably the most extensive and varied air system used at sea.

• In addition to being used for various pneumatic applications, LP and

HP compressed air are used in the production of nitrogen
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• Pneumatic Drawings
• Pneumatic Symbols are similar to those of Hydraulics, but DO NOT get them
mixed up.
• ISO Pneumatic Symbols

• I have also posted these on MOODLE.

• Have a look at the simple pneumatic system on the next slide and on your hand
outs.
• Can you put a name to the different parts?
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Name the
Supplemental
6 8
parts Air Cooler
Distribution
System
2

Compressor package
enclosure.
7

Pneumatic
Tools

Control
Panel 9
1
3
4
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How did you get on?

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• 1. Electric Motor.
• This is a prime mover & is usually 440 V, 3 Phase on board a ship.

• Symbol

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• 2. Air inlet Filter / Silencer.
• These tend to be replaceable paper filter element type.
• Others can be reusable material.

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• They are usually about 10 µ

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• They prevent larger matter such as rags and metal being dragged in which could
damage the compressor.
• They also remove fine particles which can clog up the valves etc., and they also
remove some oil when operating in an oily atmosphere.

• Symbol

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• 3. Compressor.
• The compressor shown here is a working air compressor.
• It could be either:-

• Piston Type.

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• Screw Type.

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• Rotary Centrifugal Type.

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• They can be direct drive with a
coupling:

• Or belt driven.

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• Symbol

• We will do a bit more on Compressors

later.

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• 4. Lubricant /Air Separator.
• Air oil separators remove compressor lubricant from the compressed air stream.

• During normal operation, the compressor lubricant is returned to the oil sump
and the compressed air continues to the air receiver.

• A typical oil separator reduces the lubricant entrained in the compressed air to 2-3
ppm.

• Air/oil separators are also called oil separators and demisters.

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• Oil Separator Function
• Most rotary screw compressors and rotary vane compressors inject compressor
oil right into the compression chamber with the air being compressed.
• The oil serves as a coolant and a lubricant, which also absorbs the heat of
compression.

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• Injecting the compressor oil into the compression chamber also creates a
problem.

• The compressed air is full of oil when it leaves the compressor air end.

• The compressor lubricant needs to be removed to protect the air system and to
return it to the oil sump so the compressor lubricant can be used over and over
again.

• The oil separator is the component that separates the compressor lubricant
from the compressed air and returns it to the main oil sump.

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• An Air/Oil Separator should be:-
• Able to deliver an oil carryover 2-3 ppm
• Able to withstand pressure differentials during normal operation and routine
surge demand
• Compatible with mineral and synthetic lubricants.
• Always make sure your replacement oil separator is compatible with the
compressor lubricant you are running.

• Symbol

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• 5. After-cooler and Lubricant Cooler.
• After-coolers are heat exchangers for cooling the discharge from an air
compressor.

• They use either air or water and are an effective means of removing moisture
from compressed air.

• After-coolers control the amount of water vapor in a compressed air system by

condensing the water vapor into liquid form.

• In a distribution or process manufacturing system, liquid water can cause

significant damage to the equipment that uses compressed air.

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• An after-cooler is necessary to ensure the proper
functionality of pneumatic or air handling devices that are
a part of process manufacturing systems.
• After-coolers can use either air-cooled or water-cooled
mechanisms.
• It can also cool the Lubricating
Oil.

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• The compressed air discharged from an air
compressor is hot.
Compressor Outlet Temperatures
Type of Compressor Average Outlet Air Average Outlet Air
Temperature (°F) Temperature (°C)

Oil Flooded Rotary 200 93.3

Oil Free Rotary 350 176.6

2-Stage Reciprocating 300 148.8

Centrifugal 225 107.2

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• Compressed air at these temperatures
contains large quantities of water in vapor
form.
• As the compressed air cools this water vapor
condenses into a liquid form.
• E.g. if an after-cooler is not used, then a 350
m3/ Hr compressor operating at 7 bar
introduces 200 litres of water into the
compressed air system each day.
• That’s a lot of water.

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• This water can cause many problems in a compressed air
system.

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• 6. Air Dryers.
• If moisture is not properly removed from a compressed air system it can lose
efficiency and require dramatically increased maintenance.

• The majority of pneumatic instruments and processes can not tolerate hot
compressed air.

• Compressors are normally supplied with after-coolers and moisture separators.

• To avoid these problems, compressed air systems have purification devices

available to remove the water vapor and other contaminants.
•

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• The pneumatic equipment in use and the lowest expected ambient temperature determine
the drying method.
• The most common dryer is a refrigerated unit that cools the compressed air, condenses water
and oil vapors, separates them, and drains them from the system.
• The "dried" compressed air is then fed to the air system.

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• The hot moist air and oil vapour from an air compressor enters into a Pre-
cooler/Reheater (1)
• It is pre-cooled by the outgoing cool air.
• Precooling enhances maximum efficiency of the Refrigeration unit.

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• This pre-cooled air then enters into an evaporator (2)
• It is cooled to +3 degrees C.

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• Moisture and oil vapour are condensed in this Evaporator.
• Cooled air is then passed through a moisture separator (3)
• Condensed liquids are drained out by an automatic drain (4)

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• From the separator, the cold dry air flows through the Pre-cooler/Reheater and
is reheated by the incoming air.
• Reheating increase the volume of air, prevents sweating and lowers the relative
humidity.

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• Desiccant dryers
• These utilize chemicals beads, called desiccant, to adsorb water vapor from compressed air.
• Silica gel or activated alumina are the preferred desiccants for compressed air dryers.
• The moisture in the compressed air reacts with the absorptive material to produce a liquid
effluent which is then drained from the dryer.

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•

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• Hot, saturated compressed air is filtered as it passes through a 0.01
micron high-efficiency coalescing pre-filter at F1
• Compressed air continues through the inlet valve (V1), & is dried in
the desiccant tower (T1)

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• It then exits through an outlet valve (V5)
• and final particulate filter F2.
• Meanwhile, the other desiccant tower (T2) is being regenerated.

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• A portion of the dried air is diverted through purge valve (P3) at near
atmospheric pressure
• and heated by the electric heater to 200°C

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• It then passes through regeneration valve (V4)
• and into the regeneration tower (T2).
• The heated air removes moisture vapor from the desiccant surface.

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• Dryer operation is performed automatically by a programmable logic controller
(PLC).
• The standard drying and regeneration time cycle is 8 hours.
• While one tower is drying incoming compressed air for 4 hours, the other tower
is regenerating for 3 hours (heating time), then cooling for 50 minutes, and finally
re-pressurizing to the line pressure for 10 minutes before switching over to the
other tower.
• Switching from one tower to the other is performed only when both desiccant
towers are at line pressure to prevent line surge and to minimize desiccant
abrasion.

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• Drier Symbol

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• 7 Air Filter.
• Perhaps more important thing in an efficiently run compressed air system is
having clean, dry air.
• Clean air prevents equipment malfunctions and premature component failures.
• Filters are an essential component of any compressed air system to remove all
the dirt drawn in from the atmosphere by the compressor.
• Some filters can remove a small portion of moisture from the air, but they should
not be used as a substitute for air dryers

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• Particulate filters
• Contaminant particles in compressed air
usually are measured in micrometers
(µm), or 0.000039 of an inch.
• Filters are rated according to the
minimum particle size that their
elements will trap.
• Although filters rated 40 to 60 µm are
adequate for protecting most industrial
applications, many point-of-use filters
are rated at 5 µm.

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• Most filters can remove condensed water, typically via a form of cyclone
separator at their inlet end.

• The water-removal efficiency of such filters depends on the incoming air velocity.

• Therefore, these filters must be matched to the intended air flow, rather than
acceptable pressure drop.

• Generally, such filters have transparent polycarbonate bowls to allow easy visual
inspection of the liquid level.

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• Coalescing filters
• These are the most common form of compressed air purification.

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• Most oil entrained in a compressed air stream,
as well as some of the condensed water, will be
in the form of mists or aerosols that can pass
through the openings in standard airline filters.
• Aerosol carry-over through such filters is
commonly stated as parts per million (ppm)
of oil vs. air by weight and will range from
1 to as little as 0.01 ppm.
• Coalescing-type filters can remove these
contaminants.

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• Coalescing filters have an initial (or dry) pressure drop and a working (or
saturated) pressure drop, both based on pressure and flow rate.

• The effective removal efficiency of such filters depends greatly on the air velocity
passing through the filter assembly.

• A coalescing filter rated at 0.1 ppm will typically have a clean, wetted pressure
drop of 0.15 Bar to 0.35 Bar, while a high-efficiency filter rated at 0.01 ppm can
cause as much as 0.7 Bar drop once it becomes wet or fully saturated during
service,

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• Inner and outer layers are made of rayon fibers, impregnated with phenolic
resin.
• Situated between these layers is the coalescing layer (borosilicate microglass).

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• Filter with manual drain.

• Filter with automatic drain.

• Filter with automatic drain and

• pressure drop indicator.

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• 8. Air Receiver.
• An air receiver is essential to every compressed air system.
• It acts as a buffer and a storage medium between the compressor and the
consumption system.
• There are in principal two different air receivers in a compressed air system:

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• •Primary receiver - located near the compressor, after the after-cooler but before
filtration and drying equipment
• •Secondary receivers - located close to points of larger intermittent air
consumptions

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• The maximum capacity of the compressor in a well designed systems always
exceeds the maximum mean air consumption of the system .

• The compressor must modulate its capacity during normal work, often by using
primitive strategies such as on/off modulating or more advanced strategies such
as frequency drives and inverters.

• Primitive modulating strategies cause more pressure variations in compressed air

systems than more advanced strategies.

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• So, air receivers in compressed air systems serves the important purposes of:-
• Equalizing the pressure variation from the start/stop and modulating sequence of the compressor.
• Storage of air volume equalizing the variation in consumption and demand from the system.
• Collecting condensate and water in the air after the compressor.

• Air receiver symbol

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• Filter / Regulator / Lubricator.
• We have already discussed Filters.
• The other components in these units are
• An air regulator.
• A Lubricator.

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• Manufacturers using compressed air need to "prep" the air before it is suitable for machine
use.
• A lot of air tools for example run better with an oil mist injection into clean, dry air.
• Different tools require different operating pressures, so these combined units are ideal.

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“IT IS A NARROW MIND WHICH CANNOT LOOK AT A SUBJECT
FROM VARIOUS POINTS OF VIEW”.
George Eliot
Any Questions ?

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