SECTION 4

Aquifer Characteristics
1. Aquifers
2. Water Table/Potentiometric Surface

CEE 9870 Winter 2021 Dr. Chris Power

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1 Darcy = 9.869x10 m²
Aquifers
Definitions
▪ Aquifer:
▪ Geologic unit that can store and transmit water
-2 -13
▪ Permeability of aquifers ranges from 10 darcy upwards (>9.869x10 m²)
▪ e.g. unconsolidated sand/gravels, sandstones, limestones, metamorphic rocks

▪ Confining layer
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▪ Geologic unit having little or no permeability (<9.869x10 m²)
▪ Groundwater will move through confining layers, but extremely slow
▪ Types of confining layers:
1) Aquifuge: absolutely impermeable (no transmission of water)
2) Aquitard: low permeability that can store water and transmit it slowly from one
aquifer to another (can be termed ‘leaky confining layer’)
 -13
1 Darcy = 9.869x10 m²
Aquifers
Unconfined aquifer
▪ Unconfined aquifers are also called the ‘water table’ or ‘phreatic’ aquifers
▪ Continuous layers of high permeability from surface to aquifer base
▪ Recharge through downward seepage through the unsaturated zone

Unconfined, or water-table, aquifer

Aquifers
Unconfined aquifer
▪ Water table: top surface (boundary) of an unconfined aquifer
▪ Occurs when pore-water pressure = atmospheric pressure
▪ In absence of groundwater flow, water table will be flat
▪ Sloping water table indicates groundwater is flowing
▪ Water table follows the general shape of the surface topography
▪ Groundwater flows from topographical highs to topographical lows

Vertical cross-section showing the terms used to describe subsurface water

Aquifers
Confined aquifer
▪ Aquifers that are overlain by a confining layer
▪ Recharge through (i) slow downward leakage through leaky confining
layer, or (ii) recharge where the aquifer crops out

Confined aquifers created by alternating aquifers and confining units

Aquifers
Confined aquifer
▪ Potentiometric surface: surface representative of the level to which
water will rise in a well cased to the aquifer (formerly ‘piezometric’)

Artesian and flow well in confined aquifer

Aquifers
Unconfined and confined aquifer

Perched aquifer
▪ Water intercepted by a
low-permeability layer in
the unsaturated zone
Aquifers
Springs
▪ Springs in different geologic settings

▪ Recharge/transmissivity ratio
Aquifers
Homogeneity and Isotropy
▪ Homogeneous: properties are the same at every point
▪ Heterogeneous: properties are different at every point
▪ Isotropic: properties are the same in every direction
▪ Anisotropic: properties are different in every direction
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Kz
Kx
Anisotropic

Isotropic
Kz
Kx
Aquifers
Transmissivity
▪ Amount of water that can be transmitted horizontally through a unit
width by the full saturated thickness of the aquifer

T = bK
▪ Assumes flow through the aquifer to be horizontal. Is this always valid?
Aquifers
Effective Stress
▪ Total stress  T : downward stress on plane by weight of overlying rock and water
ρ = wet density of soil
Weight of the column W =  gbA b = thickness of column

 T =  gb
A = cross-sectional area of column
Total stress (W/A)

▪ Total stress is borne by two types of forces acting across the planar surface

T =  e + P

Fitts (2012)

Column of soil supported by its base (left) and a close-up of the soil at the base (right). Two things support the
column: forces across grain-to-grain contacts (effective stress) and pressure in the pore water.
Aquifers
Effective Stress
▪ A change in total stress will also change the pressure and effective stress:
d T = d e + dP
▪ Since the weight of aquifer matrix materials in a column is approximately fixed,
changes in total stress ( d T ) are due to
▪ Pore water pressure changes ( dP ) in a confined aquifer do not change the
thickness of the saturated water body ->
d e = −dP
▪ Recalling definition of pressure head, we can relate changes in pressure to
changes in head:
dP
dh =
w g

▪ Changes in effective stress can be related to changes in head (with d T = 0 )

Aquifers
Matrix Compression
▪ When effective stress changes, matrix materials will expand or contract
▪ Decrease in effective stress = expand; increase in effective stress = compress
▪ Materials that compress a lot: some clays ; compress a little: crystalline rocks
▪ Examples of increases in effective stress:
▪ Due to pumping or drought -> reduces pore water pressure
▪ Heavy load or embankment is added to surface -> increases total stress
▪ Examples of decreases in effective stress:
▪ Wet weather -> increases head and pore water pressure
▪ Erosion of the landscape -> decreases total stress

▪ Pore water pressure is the same in all directions

▪ Stresses (effective and total) vary with direction: in most unconsolidated
materials, the horizontal stress is about half of the vertical stress
▪ However, we mostly focus on stresses in the vertical direction only (assume that
changes in effective stress are uniform over subsurface areas)
Aquifers
Matrix Compression
▪ Different materials change differently under similar changes in effective stress.
▪ Compressibility is a measure of vertical (1D) matrix stiffness

−db / b0
=
d e

𝛼 = compressibility
db = change in aquifer thickness
b0 = original aquifer thickness
d𝜎e = change in effective stress

db dVt
▪ Vertical strain is equal to volume strain for 1D compression: =
b0 Vt 0
▪ We already know that Vt = Vv + Vs , so dVt = dVv + dVs
▪ It is safe to assume that the mineral solids are incompressible ( dVs 0 ), so
virtually all compression results from the void space ( dVt dVv )
Aquifers
Storage changes
▪ Changes in subsurface water storage:
▪ (1) Water in the pore spaces could expand or contract
▪ (2) Solid matrix could expand or contract
▪ (3) Fluctuating (raising or lowering) the water table
Aquifers
Storage changes – elastic
▪ Specific storage S s : amount of water per unit volume of a saturated
material that is stored or expelled from storage when the pore water is
subject to unit change in head
dV 1 dVw = volume of water expelled
▪ For a unit decline in head: Ss = − w Vt = aquifer volume
Vt dh dh = change in head

▪ For a unit volume ( Vt = 1 ) and unit decline in head ( dh = −1), Ss = dVw

▪ Volume of water expelled due to water expansion
dVw( water ) = −Vw  dP
= −nVt w gdh

▪ Volume of water expelled due to matrix compression

dVw( matrix ) = Vt d e
= −Vt w gdh
Aquifers
Storage changes – elastic
▪ Total amount of water expelled from aquifer volume (Vt ) during a change
in head ( dh ): dV = −nV  gdh − V  gdh
w t w t w

▪ Specific storage S s : Ss = −
dVw 1
Vt dh
becomes Ss = w g (n +  )

▪ In most unconsolidated aquifers, n 10−10 m2 / N and  n

▪ In stiffer rock aquifers, is so small and is significant

▪ For 2D aquifers, we can integrate

storage over the height of the aquifer
▪ Storativity S:
S = Ssb
▪ Volume of storage removed
dVw = −SAdh
Aquifers
Storage changes – water table
▪ In unconfined aquifer, water level rises or falls with changes in the
amount of water in storage
▪ Specific yield S y : storage or release of water in unconfined layer

Specific yield in an unconfined aquifer is

the volume of water drained from the
vertical prism of unit area per unit decline
in head. The plot on the right shows how
the water content profile changes when
the head declines by one unit and water
drains from some pores near the water
table.

▪ Example to illustrate specific yield:

Aquifers
Storage changes – water table
▪ Water is also stored or expelled depending on specific storage of unit
▪ Storativity S of an unconfined aquifer:
S = S y + bS s
▪ Typically S y  bS s but for some very fine-grained units S y  bS s

▪ Volume of water drained Vw from aquifer as head is lowered:

dVw = −SAdh
▪ For granular materials, specific yield can be estimated by measuring
water contents in the saturated and unsaturated zones:

S y = n − u u = water content in the unsaturated

zone
Aquifers
Storage changes – example
▪ Consider the storage properties of a sand aquifer that is part confined and part unconfined. The sand
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has a porosity of 0.30 and compressibility of 10 m²/N. Assume the water compressibility is 4.5 x 10
m²/N. The typical water content of the sand in the unsaturated zone is 0.12. Calculate both S and Sy for
the sand aquifer. Estimate how much water would be removed from storage in a 1 km² area of confined
aquifer if the head is lowered by 0.5 m. Do the same for a 1 km² area of unconfined aquifer.
 Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
▪ Water surface maps produced with water-level elevations from wells
▪ Surface map is topographic map of groundwater

Gaining stream.
Discharging gw from
both sides.

Perched pond. Source

of water to the aquifer

Contour map of the water table

▪ Q: When would a well or borehole not be reliable for this purpose?

Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
▪ Baseflow: release of groundwater to surface water (allows streams to
flow even with no precipitation)

Baseflow in a gaining stream

Hypothetical storm hydrograph

Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Former mining site in Sydney, Nova Scotia
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Former mining site in Sydney, Nova Scotia

Waste
Pile
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Former mining site in Sydney, Nova Scotia
May 2010

Nov 2016
Waste
Pile
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Investigating groundwater flow regime

MW-10
MW-89

MW-90
MW-99 MW-01
MW-40

MW-92
MW-102
MW-48

MW-51

MW-61
MW-106
MW-110
MW-64
MW-27
MW-13

MW-57
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Investigating groundwater flow regime

27.9
26.2

25.9
27.7 32.0
24.5

26.3
26.6 27.2

30.7

30.1
29.3
31.2
28.2
29.4

24.4

21.0
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Investigating groundwater flow regime

27.9
26.2

25.9
27.7 32.0
24.5

26.3
26.6 27.2

30.7

30.1
29.3
31.2
28.2
29.4

24.4

21.0
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
 dh 
Application to Field Study q = −K   [m sec]
▪ Estimate flux between two wells  dl 

MW-102
36.6 masl

23.6 masl MW-40

30.6 masl

22.8 masl
−6
K = 6.5  10
 = 0.20

L = 440 m
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
 dh 
Application to Field Study q = −K   [m sec]
▪ Estimate flux between two wells  dl 

MW-102
36.6 masl

D = 9.4 m

23.6 masl MW-40

30.6 masl
D = 6.1 m

22.8 masl
−6
K = 6.5  10
 = 0.20

L = 440 m
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
 dh 
Application to Field Study q = −K   [m sec]
▪ Estimate flux between two wells  dl 
▪ What is the hydraulic head at both wells?
▪ What is the elevation at both wells?
▪ What is the pressure head at both wells?
▪ What is the total head gradient?
MW-102 ▪ What is the volumetric flux?
▪ What is the average linear velocity?
36.6 masl
▪ Time for a tracer to travel between wells?
D = 9.4 m

23.6 masl MW-40

30.6 masl
D = 6.1 m

22.8 masl
−6
K = 6.5  10
 = 0.20

L = 440 m
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
 dh 
Application to Field Study q = −K   [m sec]
▪ Estimate flux between two wells  dl 

MW-102
36.6 masl

D = 9.4 m

23.6 masl MW-40

30.6 masl
D = 6.1 m

22.8 masl
−6
K = 6.5  10
 = 0.20

L = 440 m
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Estimates of where, and how fast, contaminant is moving

27.9
26.2

25.9
27.7 32.0
24.5

26.3
26.6 27.2

30.7

30.1
29.3
31.2
28.2
29.4

24.4

21.0
Water Table/Potentiometric Surface
Application to Field Study
▪ Estimates of where, and how fast, contaminant is moving

14 58
360

12 320
28 280
16
280 240
265 200
118
160
5
120
80
6 40
43
383 0

241 SO4
(mg/L)